Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Preface
Brief Contents
Detailed Contents
Part 1: An Introduction to Educational Research
	Chapter 1: The Process of Conducting Research Using Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches
		A Definition of Research and Its Importance
			Research Adds to Our Knowledge
			Research Improves Practice
			Research Informs Policy Debates
			Several Problems with Research Today
		The Six Steps in the Process of Research
			Identifying a Research Problem
			Reviewing the Literature
			Specifying a Purpose for Research
			Collecting Data
			Analyzing and Interpreting the Data
			Reporting and Evaluating Research
		The Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative
Research in Each of the Six Steps
			Quantitative Research Characteristics
			Qualitative Research Characteristics
			Similarities and Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
			Research Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative Research
		Important Ethical Issues in Conducting Research
			Institutional Review Boards
			Professional Associations
			Ethical Practices throughout the Research Process
		Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research
			Solving Puzzles
			Lengthening Your Attention Span
			Learning to Use Library Resources
			Writing, Editing, and More Writing
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			The Definition and Importance of Educational Research
			The Six Steps in the Process of Research
			The Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
			The Types of Research Designs Associated with Quantitative and Qualitative Research
			The Important Ethical Issues
			The Skills Needed to Design and Conduct Research
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
Part 2: The Steps in the Process of Research
	Chapter 2: Identifying a Research Problem
		What Is a Research Problem, and Why Is It Important?
		How Does the Research Problem Differ from Other Parts
of Research?
		Can and Should Problems Be Researched?
			Can You Gain Access to People and Sites?
			Can You Find Time, Locate Resources, and Use Your Skills?
			Should the Problem Be Researched?
		How Does the Research Problem Differ in Quantitative
and Qualitative Research?
		How Do You Write a “Statement of the Problem”
Section?
			The Topic
			The Research Problem
			Justification of the Importance of the Problem
			Deficiencies in What We Know
			The Audience
		What Are Some Strategies for Writing the “Statement of the
Problem” Section?
			A Template
			Other Writing Strategies
		Examples of “Statement of the Problem” Sections
		Reexamining the Parent Involvement and the Mothers’
Trust in School Principals Studies
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Define a Research Problem and Explain Its Importance
			Distinguish between a Research Problem and Other Parts of Research
			Criteria for Deciding Whether a Problem Can and Should Be Researched
			The Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Problems
			The Five Elements of a “Statement of the Problem” Section
			Strategies Useful in Writing the “Statement of the Problem” Section
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
	Chapter 3: Reviewing the Literature
		What Is a Literature Review, and Why Is It Important?
			How Does the Literature Review Differ for Quantitative and Qualitative Studies?
		What Are the Six Steps in Conducting a Literature
Review?
			Identify Key Terms
			Locate Literature
			Critically Evaluate and Select the Literature
			Organize the Literature
			Synthesize the Literature
			Write a Literature Review
		Reexamining the Parent Involvement and the Mothers’
Trust in Principals Studies
			Literature Review Analysis in a Quantitative Study
			Literature Review Analysis in a Qualitative Study
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			What Is a Review of the Literature, and Why Is It Important?
			The Six Steps in Conducting a Literature Review
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Conducting Your Research
	Chapter 4: Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses
		What Are Purpose Statements, Research Questions,
Hypotheses, and Objectives?
			The Purpose Statement
			Research Questions
			Hypotheses
			Research Objectives
		Why Are These Statements and Questions
Important?
		How Do You Design Quantitative Purpose Statements,
Research Questions, and Hypotheses?
			Specify Variables
			The Family of Variables
			Theories and Testing of Variables
			Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements
			Writing Quantitative Research Questions
			Writing Quantitative Hypotheses
		How Do You Design Qualitative Purpose Statements and
Research Questions?
			Differentiating between Quantitative and Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions
			The Central Phenomenon in Qualitative Research
			Emerging Processes in Qualitative Research
			Writing Qualitative Purpose Statements
			Writing Qualitative Research Questions
		Reexamining the Parent Involvement and Mothers’ Trust in
Principals Studies
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Distinguish among Purpose Statements, Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Objectives
			Know Why These Statements and Questions Are Important
			Write Quantitative Purpose Statements, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
			Write Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Conducting Your Research
	Chapter 5: Collecting Quantitative Data
		Five Steps in the Process of Data Collection
		What Participants Will You Study?
			Identify Your Unit of Analysis
			Specify the Population and Sample
		What Permissions Will You Need?
			Obtain Different Types of Permissions
			Obtain Informed Consent
		What Are Your Options for Collecting Information?
			Specify Variables from Research Questions and Hypotheses
			Operationally Define Each Variable
			Choose Types of Data and Measures
		What Instrument Will You Use to Collect Data?
			Locate or Develop an Instrument
			Search for an Instrument
			Criteria for Choosing a Good Instrument
		How Will You Administer the Data Collection?
			Standardization
			Ethical Issues
		Reexamining the Quantitative Parent Involvement Study
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			State the Five Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data Collection
			Identify How to Select Participants for a Study
			Identify the Permissions Needed for a Study
			List Different Options for Collecting Information
			Locate, Select, and Assess an Instrument(s) for Use in Data Collection
			Describe Procedures for Administering Quantitative Data Collection
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Conducting Your Research
	Chapter 6: Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data
		What Are the Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data
Analysis?
		How Do You Prepare the Data for Analysis?
			Score the Data
			Determine the Types of Scores to Analyze
			Select a Statistical Program
			Input Data
			Clean and Account for Missing Data
		How Do You Analyze the Data?
			Conduct Descriptive Analysis
			Conduct Inferential Analysis
		How Do You Report the Results?
			Tables
			Figures
			Present Results
		How Do You Interpret the Results?
			Summarize the Major Results
			Explain Why the Results Occurred
			Advance Limitations
			Suggest Future Research
		Reexamining Data Analysis and Interpretation in the
Parent Involvement Study
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Identify the Steps in the Process of Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data
			Preparing Your Data for Analysis
			Analyzing the Data
			Reporting the Results
			Interpreting the Results
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Conducting Your Research
	Chapter 7: Collecting Qualitative Data
		What Are the Five Process Steps in Qualitative Data
Collection?
		What Are the Different Purposeful Sampling Approaches
for Selecting Participants and Sites?
			Purposeful Sampling
			Sample Size or Number of Research Sites
		What Types of Permissions Will Be Required to Gain
Access to Participants and Sites?
			Seek Institutional Review Board Approval
			Gatekeepers
		What Types of Qualitative Data Will You Collect?
			Observations
			Interviews
			Documents
			Audiovisual Materials
		What Procedures Will Be Used to Record Data?
			Using Protocols
		What Field and Ethical Issues Need to Be Anticipated?
			Field Issues
			Ethical Issues
		Revisiting the Mothers’ Trust in Principals Qualitative
Study
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Five Process Steps in Collecting Data
			Sampling Approaches to Selecting Participants and Sites
			Permissions Required to Gain Access
			Various Types of Qualitative Data to Collect
			Procedures for Recording Data
			Field Issues and Ethical Considerations in Data Collection
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Conducting Your Research
	Chapter 8: Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data
		What Are the Six Steps in Analyzing and Interpreting
Qualitative Data?
		How Do You Prepare and Organize the Data for
Analysis?
			Organize Data
			Transcribe Data
			Analyze by Hand or Computer
			Use of Qualitative Data Analysis Software Programs
		How Do You Explore and Code the Data?
			Explore the General Sense of the Data
			Code the Data
		How Do You Use Codes to Build Description and
Themes?
			Description
			Themes
			Layering and Interrelating Themes
		How Do You Represent and Report Findings?
			Representing Findings
			Reporting Findings
		How Do You Interpret Findings?
			Summarize Findings
			Convey Personal Reflections
			Make Comparisons to the Literature
			Offer Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
		How Do You Validate the Accuracy of Your
Findings?
		Reexamining Qualitative Data Analysis in the Mothers’
Trust in Principals Case Study
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Six Steps in the Process of Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data
			Prepare and Organize the Data for Analysis
			Explore and Code the Data
			Coding to Build Description and Themes
			Represent and Report Qualitative Findings
			Interpret the Findings
			Validate the Accuracy of the Findings
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Conducting Your Research
	Chapter 9: Reporting and Evaluating Research
		What Is a Research Report, and What Are Its Types?
			What Audience Will Receive the Report?
			What Are the Types of Research Reports?
		How Should You Structure Your Report?
			Look at the Physical Structure of Research Reports
			Design an Appropriate Quantitative Structure
			Design an Appropriate Qualitative Structure
		How Do You Write in a Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly
Way?
			Use Language That Reduces Bias
			Encode Scholarly Terms into Your Research
			Use Ethical Reporting and Writing of Research Results
			Use an Appropriate Point of View
			Balance Your Research and Content
			Interconnect Sections for Consistency
			Advance a Concise Title
		How Do You Evaluate the Quality of Your Research?
			Employ Appropriate Standards
			Quantitative Standards
			Qualitative Standards
			Evaluate with a Process Approach
		Reexamining the Parent Involvement and Mothers’ Trust in
Principals Studies
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			The Purpose of a Research Report and Its Types
			How to Structure Your Research Report
			Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly Writing Practices
			Criteria for Evaluating a Research Report
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Conducting Your Research
Part 3: Research Designs
	Chapter 10: Experimental Designs
		What Is an Experiment, When Should You Use It, and
How Did It Develop?
			When Do You Use an Experiment?
			Making Causal Inferences
			When Did Experiments Develop?
		What Are Key Characteristics of Experiments?
			Random Assignment
			Control over Extraneous Variables
			Manipulating Treatment Conditions
			Outcome Measures
			Group Comparisons
			Threats to Validity
		What Are the Types of Experimental Designs?
			Between-Group Designs
			Within-Group or Individual Designs
		What Are Potential Ethical Issues in Experimental
Research?
		What Are the Steps in Conducting Experimental
Research?
			Step 1. Decide If an Experiment Addresses Your Research Problem
			Step 2. Form Hypotheses to Test Cause-and-Effect Relationships
			Step 3. Select an Experimental Unit and Identify Study Participants
			Step 4. Select an Experimental Treatment and Introduce It
			Step 5. Choose a Type of Experimental Design
			Step 6. Conduct the Experiment
			Step 7. Organize and Analyze the Data
			Step 8. Develop an Experimental Research Report
		How Do You Evaluate Experimental Research?
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			A Definition of Experimental Research, When to Use It, and How It Developed
			Key Characteristics of Experimental Research
			Types of Experimental Designs
			Ethical Issues in Experimental Research
			Steps in Conducting an Experiment
			Evaluating an Experiment
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Additional Resources You Might Examine
	Chapter 11: Correlational Designs
		What Is Correlational Research, When Do You Use It, and
How Did It Develop?
			When Do You Use Correlational Research?
			How Did Correlational Research Develop?
		What Are the Types of Correlational Designs?
			The Explanatory Design
			The Prediction Design
		What Are the Key Characteristics of Correlational
Designs?
			Associations between Scores
			Displays of Scores
			Multiple Variable Analysis
			Using Advanced Correlational Statistical Procedures
		Potential Ethical Issues in Conducting Correlational
Research
		What Are the Steps in Conducting a Correlational Study?
			Step 1. Determine If a Correlational Study Best Addresses the Research Problem
			Step 2. Identify Individuals to Study
			Step 3. Identify Two or More Measures for Each Individual in the Study
			Step 4. Collect Data and Monitor Potential Threats
			Step 5. Analyze the Data and Represent the Results
			Step 6. Interpret the Results
		How Do You Evaluate a Correlational Study?
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			The Definition, Use, and Development of Correlational Research
			Types of Correlational Designs
			Key Characteristics of Correlational Designs
			Ethical Issues in Conducting Correlational Research
			Steps in Conducting a Correlational Study
			Criteria for Evaluating a Correlational Study
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Additional Resources You Might Examine
		Examples of Studies That Use a Correlational Design
	Chapter 12: Survey Designs
		What Is Survey Research, When Do You Use It, and How
Did It Develop?
			When Do You Use Survey Research?
			How Did Survey Research Develop?
		What Are the Types of Survey Designs?
			Cross-Sectional Survey Designs
			Longitudinal Survey Designs
		What Are the Key Characteristics of Survey
Research?
			Sampling from a Population
			Questionnaires and Interviews
			Instrument Design
			Response Rate
		How Do You Construct and Analyze an Online or Mailed
Questionnaire?
			The Cover Letter
			Overall Questionnaire Construction
			Data Analysis of a Research Questionnaire
		How Do You Design and Conduct an Interview Survey?
			Stance of the Interviewer
			Training of Interviewers
			Steps in Interviewing
			A Telephone Interview Guide
			Unique Considerations of Telephone Interviews
		What Are Potential Ethical Issues in Survey Research?
		What Are the Steps in Conducting Survey Research?
			Step 1. Decide If a Survey Is the Best Design to Use
			Step 2. Identify the Research Questions or Hypotheses
			Step 3. Identify the Population, the Sampling Frame, and the Sample
			Step 4. Determine the Survey Design and Data Collection Procedures
			Step 5. Develop or Locate an Instrument
			Step 6. Administer the Instrument
			Step 7. Analyze the Data to Address the Research Questions or Hypotheses
			Step 8. Write the Report
		How Do You Evaluate Survey Research?
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Defining Survey Research, When to Use It, and How It Developed
			Types of Survey Designs
			Key Characteristics of Survey Research
			Constructing and Using an Online or Mailed Questionnaire
			Designing and Conducting an Interview Survey
			Potential Ethical Issues in Survey Research
			Steps in Conducting Survey Research
			Criteria for Evaluating Survey Research
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Additional Resources You Might Examine
		Examples of Studies That Use a Survey Design
	Chapter 13: Grounded Theory Designs
		What Is Grounded Theory Research, When Should You
Use It, and How Did It Develop?
			When Do You Use Grounded Theory?
			How Did Grounded Theory Develop?
		Types of Grounded Theory Designs
			The Systematic Design
			The Emerging Design
			The Constructivist Design
			Choosing among the Designs
		The Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory
Research
			A Process Approach
			Theoretical Sampling
			Constant Comparative Data Analysis
			A Core Category
			Theory Generation
			Memos
		Potential Ethical Issues in Grounded Theory
Research
		What Are the Steps in Conducting Grounded Theory
Research?
			Step 1. Decide If a Grounded Theory Design Best Addresses the Research Problem
			Step 2. Identify a Process to Study
			Step 3. Seek Approval and Access
			Step 4. Conduct Theoretical Sampling
			Step 5. Code the Data
			Step 6. Use Selective Coding and Develop the Theory
			Step 7. Validate Your Theory
			Step 8. Write a Grounded Theory Research Report
		How Do You Evaluate Grounded Theory Research?
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			What Grounded Theory Is, When to Use It, and How It Developed
			Three Types of Grounded Theory Designs
			Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory Research
			Potential Ethical Issues in Grounded Theory Research
			Steps in Conducting a Grounded Theory Study
			Evaluating the Quality of a Grounded Theory Study
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Additional Resources You Might Examine
		Examples of Studies That Use a Grounded Theory Design
	Chapter 14: Ethnographic Designs
		What Is Ethnographic Research, When Should You Use It,
and How Did It Develop?
			When Do You Conduct an Ethnography?
			How Did Ethnographic Research Develop?
		What Are the Types of Ethnographic Designs?
			Realist Ethnographies
			Case Studies
			Critical Ethnographies
		What Are the Key Characteristics of Ethnographic
Research?
			Cultural Themes
			A Culture-Sharing Group
			Shared Patterns of Behavior, Belief, and Language
			Fieldwork
			Description, Themes, and Interpretation
			Context or Setting
			Researcher Reflexivity
		Ethical Issues in Conducting Ethnographic Research
		What Are the Steps in Conducting an Ethnography?
			Step 1. Identify Intent and the Type of Design and Relate Intent to Your Research Problem
			Step 2. Discuss Approval and Access Considerations
			Step 3. Use Appropriate Data Collection Procedures
			Step 4. Analyze and Interpret Data within a Design
			Step 5. Write the Report Consistent with Your Design
		How Do You Evaluate an Ethnography?
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Defining Ethnographic Research, Its Use, and Its Development
			Three Types of Ethnographic Designs
			Potential Ethical Issues in Ethnographic Research
			Steps in Conducting an Ethnography
			Criteria for Evaluating an Ethnography Study
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Additional Resources You Might Examine
		Examples of Studies That Use an Ethnographic Design
	Chapter 15: Narrative Research Designs
		What Is Narrative Research, When Do You Use It, and
How Did It Develop?
			When Do You Use Narrative Research?
			How Did Narrative Research Develop?
		What Are the Types of Narrative Designs?
			Who Writes or Records the Story?
			How Much of a Life Is Recorded and Presented?
			Who Provides the Story?
			Is a Theoretical Lens Being Used?
			Can Narrative Forms Be Combined?
		What Are the Key Characteristics of Narrative Designs?
			Individual Experiences
			Chronology of the Experiences
			Collecting Individual Stories
			Restorying
			Coding for Themes
			Context or Setting
			Collaborating with Participants
		What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Gathering
Stories?
		What Are the Steps in Conducting Narrative Research?
			Step 1. Identify a Phenomenon to Explore That Addresses an Educational Problem
			Step 2. Purposefully Select an Individual from Whom You Can Learn about the Phenomenon
			Step 3. Collect the Story from that Individual
			Step 4. Restory or Retell the Individual’s Story
			Step 5. Collaborate with the Participant–Storyteller
			Step 6. Write a Story about the Participant’s Experiences
			Step 7. Validate the Accuracy of the Report
		How Do You Evaluate Narrative Research?
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			What Is Narrative Research, When Is It Used, and How Did It Develop?
			The Types of Narrative Designs
			The Key Characteristics of Narrative Designs
			Potential Ethical Issues in Gathering Stories
			Steps in Conducting a Narrative Study
			Evaluating a Narrative Study
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Additional Resources You Might Examine
		Examples of Studies That Use a Narrative Design
	Chapter 16: Mixed Methods Designs
		What Is Mixed Methods Research, When Is It Used, and
How Did It Develop?
			When Do You Conduct a Mixed Methods Study?
			How Did Mixed Methods Research Develop?
		What Are the Types of Mixed Methods Designs?
			The Convergent Design
			The Explanatory Sequential Design
			The Exploratory Sequential Design
			The Experimental Design
			The Social Justice Design
			Multistage Evaluation Design
		What Are the Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods
Designs?
			Collect and Analyze Quantitative and Qualitative Data
			Use Rigorous Methods
			Integration (Combining the Databases)
			Use a Specific Mixed Methods Design
			Frame the Study within Theory and Philosophy
			Give Priority to Either Quantitative or Qualitative Research or Both
			Sequence the Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
			Diagram the Procedures
		What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Mixed Methods
Research?
		What Are the steps in Conducting a Mixed Methods
Study?
			Step 1. Determine If a Mixed Methods Study Is Feasible
			Step 2. Identify a Rationale for Mixing Methods
			Step 3. Identify a Data Collection Strategy
			Step 4. Develop Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Questions
			Step 5. Collect Quantitative and Qualitative Data
			Step 6. Analyze Data Separately, Concurrently, or Both
			Step 7. Write the Report as a One- or Two-Phase Study or a Multiple-Stage Study
		How Do You Evaluate a Mixed Methods Study?
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Mixed Method Research, Its Use, and Its Development
			Types of Mixed Methods Designs
			Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research
			Potential Ethical Issues in Mixed Methods Research
			Steps Used in Conducting Mixed Methods Research
			Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Additional Resources You Might Examine
		Examples of Studies That Use a Mixed Methods Design
	Chapter 17: Action Research Designs
		What Is Action Research, When Do You Use It, and How
Did It Develop?
			When Do You Use Action Research?
			How Did Action Research Develop?
		What Are the Types of Action Research Designs?
			Practical Action Research
			Participatory Action Research
		What Are the Key Characteristics of Action Research?
			A Practical Focus
			The Educator–Researcher’s Own Practices
			Collaboration
			A Dynamic Process
			A Plan of Action
			Sharing Research
		What Are Some Potential Ethical Issues in Action
Research?
		What Are the Steps in Conducting an Action Research
Study?
			Step 1. Determine If Action Research Is the Best Design to Use
			Step 2. Identify a Problem to Study
			Step 3. Locate Resources to Help Address the Problem
			Step 4. Identify Information You Will Need
			Step 5. Implement the Data Collection
			Step 6. Analyze the Data
			Step 7. Develop a Plan for Action
			Step 8. Implement the Plan and Reflect
		How Do You Evaluate an Action Research Study?
		Key Ideas in the Chapter
			Definition of Action Research, Its Use, and Its Development
			Types of Action Research Designs
			Key Characteristics of Action Research
			Potential Ethical Issues in Action Research
			Steps in Conducting an Action Research Study
			Evaluating an Action Research Study
		Useful Information for Producers of Research
		Useful Information for Consumers of Research
		Additional Resources You Might Examine
		Examples of Studies That Use an Action Research Design
Appendix A: Determine Size Using Sample Size Tables
Appendix B: Commonly Used Statistics in Educational Research
Appendix C: Nonnormal Distribution
Appendix D: Strategies for Defending a Research Proposal
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index