EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021.

Foreword
Editorial
	Differences in educational progress and outcomes
Introduction: The indicators and their framework
	The organising framework
		Actors in education systems
		Indicator groups
		Contextual factors that influence policy
	Indicator analysis using the framework
	The structure of chapters and indicators in Education at a Glance
	Sustainable Development Goal 4
	Equity in Education at a Glance 2021
	Reference
Reader’s guide
	Coverage of the statistics
	Comparability over time
	Country coverage
	Note on subnational regions
	Calculation of international means
	Classification of levels of education
		Fields of education and training
	Standard error (S.E.)
	Symbols for missing data and abbreviations
	Further resources
	Layout of tables
	Abbreviations used in this report
	References
Executive summary
	Achieving basic education and equitable education outcomes is still a challenge
	Immigrant background tends to influence learning trajectories while employment prospects of foreign-born adults vary greatly across countries
	Financial support can facilitate access to non-compulsory levels of education
	The rise in education of recent decades has not benefited men as much as women
	Men are less likely to enter and remain in the teaching profession
	Other findings
Youth in the Education Sustainable Development Goal
	Analysis
		Ensuring equity in school participation
			Participation in early childhood education and care
			Participation in upper secondary education
				Upper secondary out-of-school rates
				Upper secondary completion rates
			Ensuring equity in learning outcomes
				Learning outcomes at the age of 15, by demographic group
				Preparing teachers for diversity in the classroom
	Definitions
	Methodology
	Source
	References
Chapter A. The output of educational institutions and the impact of learning
	Indicator A1. To what level have adults studied?
		Analysis
			Below upper secondary attainment
			Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment
			Tertiary attainment
			Immigration background and educational attainment
			Subnational variations in educational attainment
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator A1 Tables
	Indicator A2. Transition from education to work: Where are today’s youth?
		Analysis
			Education and the labour market for the youth and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
			Labour-market outcomes of young adults once they leave education
			The diversity of the NEET population
			Subnational variations in the percentage of young people who are NEET
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator A2 tables
	Indicator A3. How does educational attainment affect participation in the labour market?
		Analysis
			Educational attainment and labour-market outcomes
			Educational attainment, unemployment and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
			Educational attainment and unemployment, by age and gender
			Educational attainment and employment, by age and gender
			Educational attainment and inactivity, by age and gender
			Labour-market outcomes for foreign-born adults by educational attainment
			Unemployment rates of recent upper secondary graduates
			Subnational variation in employment rates
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator A3 tables
	Indicator A4. What are the earnings advantages from education?
		Analysis
			Gender disparities in earnings
			Distribution of earnings relative to the median
			Relative earnings, by educational attainment
			Relative earnings of tertiary-educated workers, by age and over time
			Differences in earnings between native-born and foreign-born workers, by educational attainment
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator A4 tables
	Indicator A5. What are the financial incentives to invest in education?
		Analysis
			Financial incentives for individuals to invest in tertiary education
			Financial incentives for governments to invest in tertiary education
			Financial incentives by level of tertiary education
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator A5 tables
	Indicator A6. How are social outcomes related to education?
		Analysis
			Evidence on the relationship between education and life expectancy
			Evidence on the relationship between education and subjective well-being
			Evidence on the relationship between education and obesity
			Evidence on the relationship between education and health behaviours
				Eating fruits and vegetables
				Being physically active
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator A6 tables
	Indicator A7. To what extent do adults participate equally in education and learning?
		Analysis
			Trends in participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training, by gender
			Participation and labour market status, by gender
			Barriers to participation, by gender
			Participation before and during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic
			Participation by field of education and training and gender
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator A7 tables
Chapter B. Access to education, participation and progress
	Indicator B1. Who participates in education?
		Analysis
			Compulsory education
			Participation of 15-19 year-olds in education
			Participation of 20-24 year-olds in education
			Participation of adults aged 25 and older in education
			Subnational variations in enrolment
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator B1 tables
	Indicator B2. How do early childhood education systems differ around the world?
		Analysis
			Enrolment in early childhood education and care
				Enrolment of children under age 3
				Enrolment of children from age 3 to 5
				Regional variation in the enrolment of 3-5 year-olds
			Staffing of early childhood education and care
				Child-staff ratios
			Financing early childhood education and care
				Expenditure per child
				Expenditure as a percentage of gross domestic product
				Public and private provision and funding of early childhood education and care
		Definitions
		Methodology
			Enrolment rates
			Full-time and part-time children
			Estimated expenditure for all children aged 3-5 enrolled in ECEC and primary education as a percentage of GDP
		Source
		References
		Indicator B2 tables
	Indicator B3. Who is expected to graduate from upper secondary education?
		Analysis
			Gender profile of upper secondary graduates
				Upper secondary graduation, by programme orientation
				Upper secondary vocational graduation, by field of study
			Gender profile of post-secondary non-tertiary graduates
				Post-secondary non-tertiary graduation, by programme orientation
				Post-secondary non-tertiary graduation, by field of study
			First-time graduation rates
				Post-secondary non-tertiary graduation rates
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator B3 tables
	Indicator B4. Who is expected to enter tertiary education?
		Analysis
			First-time entrants into tertiary education
			Bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral education
			Gender profile of first-time and new entrants into tertiary education
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator B4 tables
	Indicator B5. Who is expected to graduate from tertiary education?
		Analysis
			Graduation rates
			Fields studied by tertiary graduates
			Mobility status of graduates
			Graduates by type of institution
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator B5 Tables
	Indicator B6. What is the profile of internationally mobile students?
		Analysis
			Mobility patterns and international student flows
				By level of studies
				By country of destination and origin
			Profile of internationally mobile students
				By field of study
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator B6 tables
Chapter C. Financial resources invested in education
	Introduction
		The framework for international educational finance indicators
			Classification of educational expenditure
			Accounting principle
			International educational finance indicators
		Reference
	Indicator C1. How much is spent per student on educational institutions?
		Analysis
			Overall expenditure per student on educational institutions
			Expenditure per student on educational institutions by level of education
			Expenditure per student on core education services, ancillary services and R&D
			Cumulative expenditure over the expected duration of studies
			Expenditure per student on educational institutions relative to GDP per capita
			Total and public expenditure on educational institutions per student, by type of institution
			Change in expenditure per student on educational institutions between 2012 and 2018
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator C1 tables
	Indicator C2. What proportion of national wealth is spent on educational institutions?
		Analysis
			Overall investment relative to GDP
			Expenditure on educational institutions by level of education
			Expenditure on educational institutions by source of funds
			Changes in educational expenditure between 2012 and 2018
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator C2 tables
	Indicator C3. How much public and private investment in educational institutions is there?
		Analysis
			Share of public and private expenditure on educational institutions
				Non-tertiary educational institutions
				Tertiary educational institutions
			Trends in the share of public and private expenditure on educational institutions
			Public transfers to the private sector
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator C3 tables
	Indicator C4. What is the total public spending on education?
		Analysis
			Overall level of public resources invested in education
			Trends in public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure, 2012-18
			Sources of public funding invested in education
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator C4 tables
	Indicator C5. How much do tertiary students pay and what public support do they receive?
		Analysis
			Differentiation of tuition fees
				Differentiation by level of study
				Differentiation by type of institution
				Variation of tuition fees within countries
				Differentiation for foreign students
				Variations over time
			Approaches to public financial support to tertiary national students
				Forms of public financial support to tertiary national students
			Public reforms to tuition fees and public financial support to students
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator C5 tables
	Indicator C6. On what resources and services is education funding spent?
		Analysis
			Distribution of educational institutions’ current and capital expenditure by education level
			Distribution of current expenditure
			Distribution of current and capital expenditure, by type of educational institution
			Allocation of staff compensation, capital and R&D expenditure between public and private educational institutions
			Trends in current and research expenditure per student
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator C6 tables
	Indicator C7. Which factors influence teachers’ salary cost?
		Analysis
			Variation in the salary cost of teachers per student by level of education
			Variation in the salary cost of teachers per student after accounting for countries’ wealth
			Contribution of each factor to the salary cost of teachers per student
			Different policies in countries with similar spending
				Group 1: High salary cost of teachers per student in primary education
				Group 2: Moderately high salary cost of teachers per student in primary education
				Group 3: Moderately low salary cost of teachers per student in primary education
				Group 4: Low salary cost of teachers per student in primary education
			Evolution of average class size and teachers’ salaries
			Relation between PISA performance in reading and average class size
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator C7 tables
Chapter D. Teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools
	Indicator D1. How much time do students spend in the classroom?
		Analysis
			Compulsory general education
			Intended instruction time
				Compulsory instruction time
				Non-compulsory instruction time
			Instruction time per subject
			Flexibility in the curriculum
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator D1 tables
	Indicator D2. What is the student-teacher ratio and how big are classes?
		Analysis
			Class size
				Average class size in primary and lower secondary education
				Class size in public and private institutions
				Trends in average class size
			Student-teacher ratios
				Student-teacher ratios across levels of education
				Student-teacher ratios across types of institution
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator D2 tables
	Indicator D3. How much are teachers and school heads paid?
		Analysis
			Salaries of teachers
				Statutory salaries of teachers
				Actual salaries of teachers
			Salaries of school heads
				Statutory salaries of school heads
				Actual salaries of school heads
			Salary trends of teachers since 2000
				Trends in statutory salaries
				Trends in actual salaries
			Formation of base salary and additional payments: Incentives and allowances
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator D3 tables
	Indicator D4. How much time do teachers and school heads spend teaching and working?
		Analysis
			Teaching time of teachers
				Differences in teaching time by level of education
				Actual teaching time
			Teaching time of school heads
			Working time of teachers
				Non-teaching time
				Non-teaching tasks and responsibilities of teachers
			Working time of school heads
				Tasks and responsibilities of school heads
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator D4 tables
	Indicator D5. Who are the teachers?
		Analysis
			Gender profile of teachers
				Share of female teachers, by level of education
				Share of female upper secondary teachers, by programme orientation
			Trends in the gender profile of teachers
				Share of female teachers, by age group and level of education
				Trends in the share of female teachers between 2005 and 2019
			Teachers’ age distribution
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Source
		References
		Indicator D5 Tables
	Indicator D6. How are public funds allocated to schools?
		Analysis
			Funding frameworks for educational institutions
				Levels of government involved
				Bases used to allocate funding
				Funding mechanisms used to distribute funding
			Use of funding formulas in allocating funding to educational institutions
				Use of funding formulas by level of government
				Use of funding formulas by category of expenditure
			Criteria used to address equity issues
				Differences in equity criteria used by reference groups
				Differences in equity criteria used, by characteristic
				Share of funding allocated by equity criteria
		Definitions
			Levels of decision making
		Coverage
		Source
		References
		Indicator D6 tables
	Indicator D7. What proportion of teachers leave the teaching profession?
		Analysis
			Attrition rates by type of institution
			Attrition by gender
			Attrition by age group
			Attrition by level of education
		Definitions
		Methodology
		Coverage
		Source
		References
		Indicator D7 tables
Annex 1. Characteristics of education systems
Annex 2. Reference statistics
Annex 3. Sources, methods and technical notes
Contributors to this publication
	INES Working Party
	Network on Labour Market, Economic and Social Outcomes of Learning (LSO)
	Network for the Collection and Adjudication of System-level descriptive Information on Educational Structures, Policies and Practices (NESLI)
	Other contributors to this publication
Education Indicators in Focus