Ecology of Fresh Waters: A View for the Twenty-First Century, Fourth Edition

ECOLOGY OF FRESHWATERS......Page 1
Contents......Page 7
1.1 WHY?......Page 13
Further reading......Page 20
2.1 Introduction......Page 22
2.2.1 Ice and melting......Page 24
2.3.1 Turnover and the hydrological cycle......Page 25
2.3.2 Changes in geological time......Page 26
2.4.1 Temperate regions......Page 27
2.4.2 Warm-temperate regions......Page 28
2.4.3 Tropical cycles......Page 29
2.5.1 Lakes and latitude......Page 30
2.5.3 Effects of altitude and oceanicity......Page 33
2.6 Viscosity of water, fluid dynamics and the diffusion of gases......Page 34
Further reading......Page 36
3.1.1 Polar and covalent compounds......Page 37
3.2 The atmosphere......Page 38
3.2.1 Carbon dioxide......Page 39
3.3.1 Effects of ionic potential......Page 40
3.4 Global patterns in major ions: glaciation and endorheism......Page 42
3.4.1 The water chemistry of ancient landscapes......Page 43
3.4.2 Volcanic activity......Page 44
3.5 Open and closed basins......Page 46
3.6 The big picture......Page 47
Further reading......Page 48
4.2 Concepts of limiting substances......Page 49
4.3 Nutrients......Page 54
4.5 Nitrogen......Page 55
4.6 Pristine concentrations......Page 56
4.7 Trace elements and silicon......Page 57
4.8.1 Patterns in DOM availability......Page 60
4.9 Substance budgets......Page 62
4.10 Sediment–water relationships......Page 64
Further reading......Page 65
5.1 Light......Page 66
5.1.1 Effects of the atmosphere......Page 67
5.2 From above to under the water......Page 68
Further reading......Page 72
6.1 Introduction......Page 73
6.2.2 Eukaryotic cells......Page 74
6.3 The freshwater biota......Page 76
6.3.1 How many phyla and where?......Page 77
6.3.2 Plants......Page 78
6.3.3 Animals......Page 79
6.4 Living in freshwaters......Page 80
6.4.1 Osmoregulation......Page 81
6.4.3 Resting stages and aestivation......Page 82
6.4.4 Getting enough oxygen......Page 84
6.4.6 Big animals, air breathers and swamps......Page 85
6.5 Dispersal among freshwaters......Page 87
6.5.3 Vulnerability and dispersal in freshwaters......Page 88
6.6.1 Fish faunas......Page 90
6.8 Low diversity freshwater habitats......Page 96
6.8.1 Caves......Page 97
6.9 A summary of the freshwater biota and its problems......Page 98
Further reading......Page 99
7.2 General models of stream ecosystems......Page 101
7.4 Flow and discharge......Page 104
7.5 Laminar and turbulent flow......Page 105
7.6 Particles carried......Page 106
7.7 The response of stream organisms to shear stress......Page 107
7.8 Community composition in streams......Page 108
7.8.1 Algal and plant communities......Page 109
7.8.2 Macroinvertebrates......Page 110
7.9 Streams in cold climates: the polar and alpine zones......Page 114
7.9.2 Primary producers......Page 116
7.9.3 Food webs in cold streams......Page 117
7.9.4 Fish and birds in polar streams......Page 119
7.10 Stream systems in the cold temperate zone......Page 121
7.10.1 Allochthonous sources of energy......Page 123
7.10.2 Shredders, filter-collectors and deposit feeders......Page 124
7.10.4 The River Continuum Concept......Page 125
7.10.8 Scarcity of nutrients......Page 126
7.10.9 Salmon......Page 127
7.11 Warm temperate streams......Page 129
7.12 Desert streams......Page 131
7.13 Tropical streams......Page 132
Further reading......Page 137
8.1 Traditional use of headwater river systems......Page 139
8.2 Deforestation......Page 141
8.3 Acidification......Page 142
8.4 Eutrophication......Page 146
8.6 Settlement......Page 148
8.7 Engineering impacts......Page 150
8.8 Alterations of the fish community by man......Page 151
8.9 Sewage, toxic pollution and their treatment......Page 153
8.10 Diffuse pollution......Page 155
8.11 River monitoring......Page 159
8.12 The Water Framework Directive......Page 160
8.13 Implementation of the Directive......Page 162
8.15 Restoration, rehabilitation and reconciliation ecology......Page 163
8.16 Reconciliation ecology of river systems......Page 166
Further reading......Page 168
9.1 Introduction......Page 169
9.2 Change from an erosive river to a depositional one......Page 170
9.3 Submerged plants......Page 172
9.4 Growth of submerged plants......Page 174
9.5.1 Whole community methods......Page 176
9.5.2 Enclosure methods......Page 177
9.5.3 Other methods......Page 178
9.7 Further downstream – swamps and floodplains......Page 179
9.7.1 Productivity of swamps and floodplain marshes......Page 181
9.7.2 Swamp soils and the fate of the high primary production......Page 182
9.7.3 Oxygen supply and soil chemistry in swamps......Page 183
9.7.4 Emergent plants and flooded soils......Page 184
9.8 Swamp and marsh animals......Page 185
9.8.1 Whitefish and blackfish......Page 186
9.9.1 Polar floodplains......Page 188
9.9.2 Cold temperate floodplains......Page 189
9.9.3 Warm temperate floodplains......Page 191
9.9.4 Tropical floodplains......Page 192
9.9.5 The Sudd......Page 195
Further reading......Page 197
10.1 Introduction......Page 198
10.2 Floodplain services......Page 201
10.2.1 Floodplain fisheries......Page 204
10.3 Floodplain swamps and human diseases......Page 205
10.4.1 The Florida Everglades......Page 208
10.4.2 The Pongola river......Page 212
10.5.1 Plant bed management in rivers......Page 216
10.5.2 Mitigation and enhancement......Page 218
10.5.3 Rehabilitation......Page 221
10.6.1 Assessment of the water needs......Page 223
Further reading......Page 226
11.1 Introduction......Page 228
11.2 The origins of lake basins......Page 229
11.3 Lake structure......Page 231
11.4 The importance of the catchment area......Page 235
11.5 Lakes as autotrophic or heterotrophic systems......Page 236
11.6 The continuum of lakes......Page 239
11.7 Lake history......Page 245
11.7.1 The methods of palaeolimnology......Page 246
11.7.2 Organic remains......Page 248
11.7.3 General problems of interpretation of evidence from sediment cores......Page 250
11.7.4 So what has the history been? Two ancient lakes......Page 251
11.7.5 Younger lakes......Page 253
11.8 Filling in......Page 254
11.9 Summing up......Page 255
Further reading......Page 256
12.1 Introduction......Page 257
12.2.1 Temperature......Page 258
12.2.2 Nutrients......Page 259
12.2.3 Littoral communities in lakes......Page 262
12.3 The structure of littoral communities......Page 265
12.4 Heterotrophs among the plants......Page 268
12.5 Linkages, risks and insurances among the littoral communities......Page 272
12.7 The role of the nekton......Page 274
Further reading......Page 277
13.1 Kitchens and toilets......Page 279
13.2 Phytoplankton......Page 280
13.2.1 Photosynthesis and growth of phytoplankton......Page 283
13.2.2 Net production and growth......Page 284
13.2.3 Nutrient uptake and growth rates of phytoplankton......Page 285
13.2.5 Washout......Page 287
13.2.6 Cyanobacterial blooms......Page 288
13.3 Heterotrophs in the plankton: viruses and bacteria......Page 291
13.4 Protozoa and fungi......Page 293
13.5 Zooplankton......Page 295
13.5.1 Grazing......Page 297
13.5.3 Competition among grazers......Page 300
13.5.4 Predation in the zooplankton......Page 301
13.5.5 Predation on zooplankters by zooplankters......Page 302
13.6.1 Predation on the zooplankton and fish production......Page 305
13.6.2 Avoidance of vertebrate predation by the zooplankton......Page 308
13.7 Piscivores and piscivory......Page 310
13.8 Functioning of the open-water community......Page 311
13.8.1 Polar lakes......Page 312
13.8.2 Cold temperate lakes......Page 313
13.8.3 Warm temperate lakes......Page 315
13.8.4 Very warm lakes in the tropics......Page 317
Further reading......Page 319
14.1 The end of the line......Page 320
14.2 The importance of oxygen......Page 321
14.3 Profundal communities......Page 322
14.4.1 Chironomus anthracinus, a detritivore......Page 324
14.4.2 Chaoborus flavicans, a predator......Page 326
14.5 What the sediment-living detritivores really eat......Page 327
14.6 Influence of the open water community on the profundal benthos......Page 328
Further reading......Page 333
15.1 Introduction......Page 334
15.2 Services provided by standing waters......Page 336
15.3 Fisheries......Page 337
15.3.2 Eggs......Page 338
15.3.3 Feeding......Page 340
15.3.4 Breeding......Page 341
15.3.6 Measurement of fish production......Page 344
15.3.7 Growth measurement......Page 345
15.3.8 Fish production and commercial fisheries in lakes......Page 346
15.4 Changes in fisheries: two case studies......Page 350
15.4.1 The North American Great Lakes......Page 351
15.4.2 The East African Great Lakes......Page 352
15.5 Fish culture......Page 358
15.6 Stillwater angling......Page 361
15.7 Amenity culture and the aquarium trade......Page 363
15.8 Domestic water supply, eutrophication and reservoirs......Page 364
15.8.1 Eutrophication – human induced changes in the production of lakes......Page 365
15.8.2 Dams and reservoirs......Page 370
15.8.3 Fisheries in new lakes......Page 371
15.8.5 New tropical lakes and human populations......Page 372
15.8.6 Man-made tropical lakes, the balance of pros and cons......Page 373
15.9 Amenity and conservation......Page 375
15.10 Restoration approaches for standing waters: symptom treatment......Page 379
15.11.1 Present supplies of phosphorus, their relative contributions and how they are related to the algal crop......Page 382
15.11.2 Methods available for reducing total phosphorus loads......Page 383
15.11.4 Complications for phosphorus control – sediment sources......Page 386
15.11.5 Nitrogen reduction......Page 387
15.12 Nitrogen reduction......Page 388
Further reading......Page 389
16.1 The Merchant of Venice......Page 392
16.2 Climate change......Page 393
16.3 Existing effects of freshwaters......Page 395
16.4 Future effects......Page 398
16.4.1 Future effects on freshwaters......Page 401
16.4.2 Switches and feedbacks......Page 409
16.5 Control and mitigation of global warming......Page 412
16.6 The remedy of ultimate causes......Page 414
Further reading......Page 420
Exercise 1. Stratification......Page 423
Exercise 3. The Vollenweider model......Page 424
Exercise 4. Nutrient budgeting......Page 425
Exercise 5. Light penetration......Page 427
Exercise 7. Problems with a frog......Page 428
Exercise 10. Swamp habitats and insect adaptations......Page 429
Exercise 11. Ecosystem valuation in a floodplain......Page 432
Exercise 14. The plankton of paddling pools......Page 435
Exercise 15. Probing the profundal......Page 439
Exercise 16. The curse of birds for lake managers......Page 440
Exercise 17. Nutrient problems in tricky situations......Page 442
References......Page 444
Index......Page 466