Ecological Migration and Targeted Poverty Alleviation in Ningxia: Experience and Lessons (International Research on Poverty Reduction)

Foreword
Contents
1 Introduction Relocation and Targeted Poverty Alleviation: A Re-examination of Ecological Migration in Ningxia
	1.1 Policies on Relocation for Poverty Alleviation
	1.2 Relocation and Poverty
	1.3 Targeted Poverty Alleviation in Relocation Areas
	1.4 Targeted Poverty Alleviation and Adaption to Mobility
	References
2 Brief Introduction of Socioeconomic Conditions of Ecological Migrants in Ningxia
	2.1 Living Conditions of Ecological Migrants
		2.1.1 Natural Conditions
		2.1.2 Transport Facilities, Water Supply, and Energy for Household Use
		2.1.3 Public Facilities
	2.2 Economic Conditions of Ecological Migrants
		2.2.1 Household Financial Balances
		2.2.2 Household Income
		2.2.3 Household Expenditure
	2.3 Social Status of Ecological Migrants
		2.3.1 Status in the Household Registration System
		2.3.2 Education Level
		2.3.3 Political Status
		2.3.4 Means of Resettlement
		2.3.5 Jobs
	2.4 Poverty of Ecological Migrant Villages and Their Plans for Poverty Elimination
	2.5 Major Problems in Socioeconomic Development of Ecological Migrants
		2.5.1 Shortage of Water and Farmland in Some Relocation Areas
		2.5.2 Poverty of Elderly Migrants
		2.5.3 Lack of Further Impetus for Industrial Development
		2.5.4 Inaccurate Identification of the Impoverished in Some Villages
3 Production and Living Conditions of Migrants
	3.1 Income and Expenditure of Migrant Families
		3.1.1 Household Income
		3.1.2 Household Expenditure
		3.1.3 Structure of Income and Expenditure of Different Types of Rural Households
		3.1.4 Household Debt
	3.2 Production of Migrant Families
		3.2.1 Agricultural Production
		3.2.2 Migrant Workers
	3.3 Migrants’ Demands for Policies on Production
4 Analysis of “Low Settlement Rate” in the Ecological Migrant Settlements in Ningxia
	4.1 Migrant Respondents’ Perceptions of the Current Condition of Relocation
		4.1.1 On “Those Who Should Have Resettled in but didn’t”
		4.1.2 On “The Migrants Who Settled in and Relocated Again”
		4.1.3 On “The Residents Who Left to Work Elsewhere”
		4.1.4 On “The Potential Migrants”
	4.2 Analysis of the Causes of Low Settlement Rate in Ecological Migrant Settlements
		4.2.1 Increasingly Prominent Location Selection Issues, Poor Subsequent Development Environment
		4.2.2 Low Level of Community Management, Low Efficiency of Supporting Facilities
		4.2.3 Self-Initiated Migration Issue Becomes Acute, Speculation is on the Rise
		4.2.4 Low Quality and Weak Social Adaptability Confront the Migrants
		4.2.5 Migration Policy Needs to Be Improved, with More Attention Given to Special Groups
5 Social Inclusion of Ningxia Ecological Migrants
	5.1 Definitions and Current Conditions
		5.1.1 Defining Social Inclusion
		5.1.2 Status Analysis of the Social Inclusion of Ecological Migrants
	5.2 Factors Affecting the Social Inclusion of Ecological Migrants
		5.2.1 Cultural Differences
		5.2.2 Economic Deprivation
		5.2.3 Discrimination and Prejudice
		5.2.4 Lack of Social Support
		5.2.5 Self-Initiated and Involuntary
		5.2.6 Lack of Human Capital
		5.2.7 Years of Residence in Current Place of Residence
		5.2.8 Willingness and Ability to Interact
		5.2.9 Age Difference
	5.3 Social Inclusion of Ecological Migrants and Possible Paths
		5.3.1 Face National and Cultural Difference Seek Common Ground While Preserving Differences of Hui and Han People
		5.3.2 Promote Follow-Up Industries, Strengthen Precision-Targeting Poverty Alleviation
		5.3.3 Deepen the Mutual Cognition Between the Hui and Han People, Strive to Eliminate Discrimination and Prejudice
		5.3.4 Restructure Social Relation Network and Offer Necessary Social Support
		5.3.5 Innovate Education Incentive Mechanism and Enhance Cultural Skills of Migrants
	References
6 Endowment Security Innovations for Ecological Migrants in Ningxia
	6.1 Endowment Predicaments for Ecological Migrants
	6.2 Necessity of Establishing a Personal Endowment Security Mechanism for Ecological Migrants
		6.2.1 Establish a Personal Endowment Insurance System for Migrants, Enhance the Elderly Migrants’ Confidence in Life
		6.2.2 Establish an Optimized Migrant Personal Endowment Insurance Model, Ensure that the Migrants Remain Stable
		6.2.3 Free the Migrants of Their Worries Concerning Resettlement and Follow-Up Development, Enable Them to Devote Their Heart and Soul to Poverty-Eradicating Production
		6.2.4 Build Migrant Personal Endowment Insurance into a Demonstration Project, Produce Positive Demonstrative Effect
	6.3 Principles for Establishing a Personal Endowment Security Mechanism for Ecological Migrants
		6.3.1 Formulate a Personal Endowment Insurance System for Migrants According to Law
		6.3.2 Properly Improve the Migrant Security Level
		6.3.3 Dynamic Adjustment
		6.3.4 Proper Share
		6.3.5 Share of Project Revenues by Migrants
		6.3.6 Compulsory Payment
		6.3.7 Territorial Management
	6.4 Recommended Innovations on the Endowment Security Mechanism for Ecological Migrants
		6.4.1 Object of Migrant Endowment Insurance
		6.4.2 Contributions Standard for Personal Basic Endowment Insurance of Migrants
		6.4.3 Sources of Fund for Personal Endowment Insurance of the Migrants
		6.4.4 Willingness of Young- and Middle-Aged Migrants to Continue Payment of Insurance Contributions and the Payment Standard
		6.4.5 Schemes for Raising Funds for Personal Endowment Insurance Contributions of the Migrants
		6.4.6 Transfer and Renewal, Operation and Regulation of the Personal Endowment Insurance Fund of the Migrants
7 Industry Development and Poverty Issues Associated with Ecological Migration
	7.1 Ecological Migration and Poverty Alleviation Through Industrial Development
	7.2 Development Models of Follow-Up Industries and Impoverishment Risks Associated with Ecological Migration
		7.2.1 Industrial Development, Labor Migration, and Impoverishment Risks
		7.2.2 Modern Agricultural Areas
	7.3 Anti-Poverty Intervention and Migrant Settlement Development
	References
8 Nonfarm Employment, Labor Dispatch, and Informal Labor
	8.1 Characteristics of Ecological Migration and Nonfarm Employment
		8.1.1 Overview of Nonfarm Employment: New Opportunities for Differential Employment and Diversification
		8.1.2 Characteristics of Nonfarm Employment: Localization, Part-Time Work, and Informal Labor
		8.1.3 Labor Dispatch System
	8.2 Risks and Challenges Associated with Nonfarm Employment of Ecological Migrants
		8.2.1 Inadequacy of Job Opportunities
		8.2.2 Absence of Labor Rights Protection and Labor Security Under the Labor Dispatch Regime
		8.2.3 Predicaments Facing the Employment of Special Populations
		8.2.4 Myths About the “Quality” and “Wait, Depend, Want” Discourses
	8.3 Conclusions and Policy Responses: Ecological Migrants Among Migrant Workers
		8.3.1 Conclusions
		8.3.2 Policy Responses
	References
9 Ecological Migration and Social Governance
	9.1 Problems and Challenges Facing Ecological Migration in A New Economic Normal
		9.1.1 Noticeable Problems with Increasing Migrants’ Income
		9.1.2 Urgent Problems with Governance Service for Migrants
		9.1.3 Industrial Development Problems
		9.1.4 Worsening Soil Salinization
	9.2 Basic Framework and Practice of Social Governance of Ecological Migration
		9.2.1 Basic Guideline for Social Governance of Ecological Migration
		9.2.2 Exploration and Practice of Social Governance of Ecological Migration in Ningxia
	9.3 Predicaments and Path Selection for the Social Governance of Ecological Migration
		9.3.1 Predicaments Facing the Social Governance of Ecological Migration
		9.3.2 Path Selection for Social Governance of Ecological Migration
10 Social Governance of Self-initiated Migration
	10.1 Basic Conditions and Rights Protection of Self-Initiated Migrants in Ningxia
		10.1.1 Emergence and Development of Self-initiated Migration in Ningxia
		10.1.2 Rights Protection for Self-initiated Migrants in Ningxia
	10.2 Predicaments for Social Governance of Self-initiated Migrant-Inhabited Areas in Ningxia
		10.2.1 Private Trade of Farmland and Houses, Unauthorized Occupation, and Construction are Heavily Present, Resulting in Disorderly Development and Resources Wastage in Rural Communities
		10.2.2 Giving Unplanned Births is Very Common, Challenging the Grassroots Family Planning Management
		10.2.3 Residence Registration Barriers have Become the Greatest Obstacle for the Development of Ecological Migrants, As Well As the Toughest Job for Grassroots Government in Social Governance
		10.2.4 Infrastructure in Self-Initiated Migrant-Inhabited Areas is Extremely Weak, Affecting the Production and Life of the Migrants and Triggering Many Social Contradictions
		10.2.5 Grassroots Organizations Are Inadequate; Religious and Sectarian Problems Take Place Every Now and then
		10.2.6 The Self-Initiated Migrants Are Undereducated with Limited Employment and Entrepreneurship Abilities
	10.3 Significance of Speeding up the Resolution of Self-initiated Migration Problems
	10.4 Paths and Recommendations for Social Governance of Self-initiated Migrant-Inhabited Areas in Ningxia
		10.4.1 Guidelines on the Resolution of Self-Initiated Migration Problems in Ningxia
		10.4.2 Recommended Actions to Resolve the Self-initiated Migration Problems in Ningxia
Afterword