Ecclesiastical Landscapes in Medieval Europe: An Archaeological Perspective

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Introduction: Towards an Archaeological Study of Medieval Ecclesiastical Landscapes in Europe
	José Carlos Sánchez-Pardo, Emmet H. Marron and Maria Crîngaci Țiplic
FIRST PART: ECCLESIASTICAL TOPOGRAPHIES
Lesser Churches, Kin-groups and Communities in the Early Middle Ages: Archaeological Evidence from Corcu Duibne, Ireland
	Tomás Ó Carragáin
		Figure 1. The Kingdom of Corcu Duibne showing its main sub-divisions and all known church sites. Nick Hogan, University College Cork.
		Figure 2. The Iveragh (Uí Rátach) Study Area comprising the bailte of Reencaheragh and Letter showing all known early medieval sites. The townlands (subdivisions of the bailte), as depicted on the seventeenth-century Down Survey, are also shown. Nick Hoga
		Figure 3. Plan of the early ecclesiastical site on Long Island, Reencaheragh townland. O’Sullivan and Sheehan 1996.
		Figure 4. Aerial photograph of Illaunloughan, the excavated (and conserved) island monastery in the sound between Reencaheragh and Valentia. Con Brogan, National Monuments Service.
		Figure 5. Plan of Cloghanecarhan, one of seven church sites in the baile of Letter. O’Sullivan and Sheehan 1996.
		Figure 6. Aerial photo of Letter church site (centre) and two of the three raths in its townland. Digital Globe.
		Figure 7. The Dingle (Áes Irruis Tuascirt) study area showing all known early medieval settlements. The land units shown were probably half bailte (see text). Nick Hogan, University College Cork.
		Figure 8. Aerial photo of Lisdargan church site (top right, c. 74 m across) and some of the raths within the same half baile (Monagh). Digital Globe.
		Figure 9. Plan of Churchfield, a relatively large (71 m) ecclesiastical enclosure with an early mortared stone church. Cuppage 1986.
By Land and Sea: Medieval Places and Ways of Faith in the Isle of Man
	Andrew Johnson
		Figure 1. The Isle of Man: its mountainous interior, early medieval chapels and burial grounds, medieval parish centres and parochial boundaries. Also shown, for ease of reference, are the outlines of the detailed maps forming Figures 2-8.
		Figure 2. Keeill Pharlane and Keeill Pheric. Contours show the rugged interior of the island in contrast to the morainic landscape around both chapels. Several of the nearby hillocks are crowned with burial monuments, whilst the coastline is characterised
		Figure 3. Raby Mooar and Crosh Pharlane. Inset top: the view to seaward from Raby Mooar. Inset bottom: the beach at Traie ny Voillan, showing the start of the path down the cliffs as a darker green zig-zag in the foreground.
		Figure 4. Lag ny Keeilley. Contours emphasise the steeply sloping coastline to north and south. Inset: the view south from the shore at Niarbyl, with Lag ny Keeilley highlighted in red.
		Figure 5. Keeill Catreeney, Keeill Moirrey and Ballaqueeney.
		Figure 6. Chapel Hill, Keeill Oran, Keeill Pharlane and Scarlett. Inset top: calm waters within Poyllvaaish. Inset centre: the inlet adjacent to Keeill Pharlane. Inset bottom: eroded geological dykes form clear channels leading to the beach at Scarlett.
		Figure 7. St Michael’s Isle, Ronaldsway and Santon. Inset top: the inscribed slab found forming the western end of one of the shrines (Manx Cross 164, measures 0.65 x 0.54 m). Inset bottom: the shrines following investigation in 1937.
		Figure 8. St Adamnan’s, Lonan. Contours emphasise how the former parish church was concealed from the sea, whilst the ways to and from the shore can be reconstructed from a combination of paths, tracks and roads.
The Late Antique Ecclesiastical Settlement of Los Hitos and the Rural Landscapes of the Visigoth Capital (Toledo, Spain)
	Isabel Sánchez Ramos and Jorge Morín de Pablos
		Figure 1. Map with the main Visigothic archaeological sites in the Region of Toledo. 1. Las Vegas (La Pueblanueva); 2. El Saucedo (Talavera de la Reina); 3. Las Tamujas (Malpica de Tajo); 4. St Maria de Abajo (Carranque); 5. El Rincón (Alcolea de Tajo); 6
		Figure 2. Location of the archeological site of Los Hitos (© Authors).
		Figure 3. 2018 Orthoimage of the late antique complex of Los Hitos (© Authors).
		Figure 4. Areal view of the pantheon. Note the principal burial in sarcophago in the middle of the central chamber (© Authors).
		Figure 5. Spatheia (small ceramic amphora) recuperated in 2016 excavation (©Authors).
		Figure 6. The late antique church of Los Hitos (©Authors).
		Figure 7. Sacred architecture in the territory of Toledo: a) St Pedro de la Mata church; b) Guarrazar; c) St Maria de Melque church (© Authors).
		Figure 8. Los Hitos. a-b) Architectonical restituion of the funerary building proposed by the authors (© J.R. González de la Cal); c) Ideal restitution of the ecclesiastical complex at the end of Late Antiquity proposed by the authors (© Albert Alvarez Ma
Landscapes of Christianisation. The Emergence and Evolution of Church Power in the Tuscan Countryside During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages
	Gabriele Castiglia, Stefano Bertoldi and Cristina Menghini
		Figure 1. The most important sites mentioned in the paper (S. Bertoldi).
		Figure 2. Comparison between the new foundations (in blue) and the churches effectively known for each century (so, comprehending also the more ancient ones) (G. Castiglia).
		Figure 3. Plan comparison between urban and rural churches in the longue durée (G. Castiglia).
		Figure 4. The area of the monastery of San Salvatore and its walking distances (S. Bertoldi, C. Menghini).
		Figure 5. The natural canalization systems between the Mount Amiata and San Salvatore (S. Bertoldi, C. Menghini).
Christianization and Transformation of Religious Landscape in (West) Bohemia
	Martin Čechura
		Figure 1a. Map of Czech Republic showing the surveyed region. Drawing by M. Čechura.
		Figure 1b. Map of West Bohemia with surveyed sites. Drawing by M. Čechura. 1: Albrechtice, 2: Čečovice, 3: Dobrá Voda, 4: Domažlice, 5: Hradec u Stoda, 6: Planá, 7: Planá nade Mží, 8: Plzeň-Doubravka, 9: Přeštice, 10: Starý Plzenec, 11: Štítary, 12: Sušic
		Figure 2. Plzen-Doubravka, earrings with a S-shaped end and silver coin from graveyard. Drawing by F. Fryda.
		Figure 3. Stronghold Starý Plzenec (Hůrka) with Church of St Peter. Aerial photo by M. Cechura.
		Figure 4. Stronghold Hradec by Stod. Aerial photo by M. Cechura.
		Figure 5. Stronghold Štítary. Aerial photo by P. Braun.
		Figure 6. Domažlice, Church of St Jacob. Drawing by P. Hereit.
		Figure 7. Čečovice, Church of St Nicolaus. Drawing by P. Hereit.
		Figure 8. Planá, Church of St Peter and Paul. Drawing by F. Fryda.
		Figure 9. Sušice, Church of Virgin Mary. Drawing by M. Cechura.
The Rise of the Parish System in Transylvania as Reflected by the Archaeological Discoveries
	Maria Crîngaci Țiplic
		Figure 1. Location of the Byzantine style church and the distribution of the row-grave cemeteries in the area of Alba Iulia (second half of the 10th century–11th century).
		Figure 2. Distribution of the row-grave cemeteries in Transylvania (second half of the 10th century–12th century).
		Figure 3. Distribution of churchyards with depositing coins inside the graves (second half of the 11th century–12th century).
		Figure 4. Bishopric of Transylvania (structure of the archdeaconries) with its oldest possessions (based on maps from CDTrans. I and Hegyi 2018: 6).
		Figure 5. The spread of churches, monasteries and churchyard/cemeteries in Transylvania in the 12th century and in the first half of the 13th century.
		Figure 6. The medieval parish church of Sibiu: the ruins of the Romanesque apse partial unearthed in 2013 (Ţiplic, Țiplic and Ignat 2015: 241–242) and entirely unearthed in February and March of 2019 (© M. Crîngaci Țiplic, I.M. Țiplic and D. Marcu Istrate
		Figure 7. The spread of churches and monasteries in Transylvania in the second half of the 13th century.
Architectural Interferences in Medieval Transylvania (13th–15th Centuries): the Archaeology of Orthodox Churches in a Catholic Landscape
	Daniela Marcu Istrate
		Figure 1. Medieval Orthodox churches in Transylvania built before 1500, with the places mentioned in text marked as such: Bogdan Vodă – Cuhea (10); Brașov (11); Cinciș (17); Dăbâca (23); Feleacu (27); Giulești (33); Hălmagiu (36); Hunedoara (38); Leșnic 3
		Figure 2. Single-nave churches with a rectangular apse: 1. Sântămărie Orlea; 2. Streisângeorgiu; 3. Strei (photo: D. Marcu Istrate).
		Figure 3. Churches with a semicircular apse: 1. Giulești (ruins); 2. Voivozi (ruins); 3. Almașu Mare-Joseni; 4. Râmeț.
		Figure 4. Churches with Byzantine-style planimetry: 1. Hunedoara; 2. Viștea de Jos; 3. Paroși; 4. Prislop.
		Figure 5. Single-nave churches with a polygonal apse, built in Gothic style: 1. Cuhea (ruins); 2. Lupșa (ground plan of the medieval church, based on archaeological researches).
		Figure 6. The Orthodox Church in Feleacu, 15th century: 1. View from the east; 2. The present-day eighteenth-century western façade with their fitted Gothic portal. 3. The southern main entrance, with its Gothic portal. 4. View from the north, with the me
		Figure 7. The Orthodox Church in Feleacu, 15th century: images from inside, taken during the archaeological excavations (photo: D. Marcu Istrate).
		Figure 8. The Orthodox Church in Feleacu: the archaeology of the edifice (1) and planimetric restitution of the fifteenth-century church (2).
The Archaeology of Romanesque Churches in Transylvania (11th–13th Centuries)
	Ioan Marian Țiplic and Maria Crîngaci Țiplic
		Figure 1. Situation of archaeological research on medieval sites between 2000–2008 (adaptation after Pinter 2010).
		Figure 2. Distribution of medieval archaeological research according to institution type (adaptation after Pinter 2010).
		Figure 3. Romanesque churches from southern Transylvania: 1. Geoagiu de Jos; 2. Cisnădie; 3. Orăștie; 4. Cisnădioara; 5. Cincu (Photos by I.M. Țiplic and M. Crîngaci Țiplic).
		Figure 4. The map of historical center of Sibiu with the localization of medieval churches, monasteries and chapels (1a. Dominican monastery until 1442; 1b. Dominican monastery after 1474; 2. The monastery of the Dominican nuns; 3. St Elisabeth church of
		Figure 5. The geographical spread of Romanesque churches in the southern part of Transylvania until the first half of the 13th century (according to Crîngaci Țiplic and Țiplic 2016: 153).
		Figure 6. The geographical spread of Romanesque churches in the southern part of Transylvania in the second half of the 13th century (according to Crîngaci Țiplic and Țiplic 2016: 154).
SECOND PART: MONASTIC LANDSCAPES
Monastic Landscapes in the Isle of Man: Ad 1100 to 1540
	Peter Davey
		Figure 1. Map of Isle of Man showing the medieval parishes and monastic holdings at the Dissolution in 1540.
		Figure 2. Map of Malew showing the ten sections of monastic boundary described below together with the location of the monastic demesne and its farms, the king’s holding and post-medieval intack.
		Figure 3. The erratic and partly ploughed out Section 3 of the monastic boundary: king’s land above (north), monastic land below (south), shown in air photo, 1st edition of the OS 25” 1868 and LiDAR.
		Figure 4.  A: Granite standing stone with incised cross, plough up from the monastic boundary above Oxwath and now re-erected in the garden of the farm at Ballavell; B: The flat-bottomed, dry valley called Fanc; C: The Fairy Bridge with gifts and messages
		Figure 5. Folio 54v of the limites terrarum monachorum showing the additional footnote (cf Fellows-Jensen 2015, 263-9, Fig.12.2).
		Figure 6. Map of the Malew Abbeylands showing the location of existing later prehistoric and early medieval sites (Davey 2017, 22-24).
		Figure 7. Map of the Malew Abbeylands showing the position of place-names included in the limites where known.
		Figure 8. Air-photograph of the right-angled junction within between Section 6 of the limites between Cornama and Totmanby showing access routes to common grazing for farms from the south (a lane in the centre) and east (a ploughed out green lane, now a f
On the Edge: Excavations at Whitefriars, Perth, 2014-2017
	Derek Hall
		Figure 1.  Location of Perth in Scotland and Perth friaries (© Derek Hall).
		Figure 2. Ground plan of first phase church and ranges (1262) and ground plan of remodelled church and ranges (1517) (© Derek Hall).
		Figure 3. Detail of burial SK1406 with wooden ‘staff’ looking South (© Derek Hall).
		Figure 4. General view of multiple burials in wood lined grave looking West (© Derek Hall).
		Figure 5. Jet and single glass bead necklace or rosary (© Derek Hall).
		Figure 6. Plan of two phases of Carmelite church (green is 1262 construction; red is 1517 rebuild) showing burial locations (red dots are definite later church burials) (© Derek Hall).
		Figure 7. Fragment of chain mail leg from tomb effigy reused as packing in rood screen (© Derek Hall).
		Figure 8. Wooden water trough in floor of South range looking East (© Derek Hall).
Cistercian Rievaulx Abbey and the ‘Transformation’ of King Henry II’s Wasteland
	Freya Horsfield
		Figure 1. Location of Pickering Marishes. Contains OS data. © Crown copyright and database right 2019.
		Figure 2. Watercourses defined King Henry’s gift. Tithe commutation extent of Deerholme and Loft Marishes shown in relation to modern landscape.25cm Vertical Aerial Imagery (2007-2015) Scale 1:500. © Getmapping 2019. Downloaded: 2018-05-14 using EDINA Aer
		Figure 3. Wider locations mentioned in text. Contains OS data © Crown copyright and database right 2019. Contours generated using Land-Form PROFILE Scale 1:10000 updated: 2009-11-05, using EDINA Digimap Ordnance Survey Service, https://digimap.edina.ac.uk
		Figure 4a & 4b. Post-medieval canalisation of River Derwent. Copyright Laura Eddey.
		Figure 5. Early monasteries established by Rivers Rye and Derwent and their tributaries. Only relevant watercourses shown.Contains OS data © Crown copyright and database right 2019.
		Figure 6. Soil types at Deerholme and Loft Marishes. See Table 2 for details of soil types. Derived from OS data © Crown copyright and database right 2019; Soils Data © Cranfield University (NSRI) 2018
		Figure 7. Flooding over cultivation ridges photographed in winter 2012 at Sheepfoot Grange illustrate a challenge shared by medieval and modern farmers. Diagonal lines are artefacts of image overlay process.
		Figure 8. Intake of land was a long-term process. New units were established throughout the history of Marishes. A selection of these are indicated, including multiple termed ‘new stead’ Contains OS data © Crown copyright and database right 2019.
Evolution, Innovation and Symbolism in Medieval Monastic Gardens
	James Bond
		Figure 1. Location of places mentioned in the text (prepared by Phil Knibb).
		Figure 2. Mount Grace Charterhouse, Yorkshire: excavation of the garden of Cell 8 (courtesy of Glyn and Denny Coppack).
		Figure 3. Gardens portrayed on the plan prepared c. 820 AD by Abbot Haito of Reichenau for the monastery of St Gallen, Switzerland: A = Infirmary Garden; B = Kitchen Garden; C = Orchard Cemetery (Bond 2016a).
		Figure 4. Maxstoke Priory, Warwickshire: the walled subdivisions within the precinct reflect the documentary record of a conventual garden, a herbarium, and separate gardens for the prior, precentor, sacrist and infirmarer (Holliday 1874).
		Figure 5. The excavated garden at Haverfordwest Priory, Pembrokeshire (drawn by Mike Rouillard, amended from Rees 1999, courtesy of Oliver Creighton).
		Figure 6. Canterbury Cathedral Priory: part of the plan of the water system created by Prior Wibert, c. 1153–1161, showing the piscina (fishpond) in the monks’ cemetery and the herbarium in the infirmary cloister (from the Eadwine Psalter, MS R.17.1, fos.
		Figure 7. Winchester: 15th-century gate to the garden known as Paradise, east of the north transept of the cathedral priory church (author).
		Figure 8. St Ætheldreda, from the Benedictional of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, c. 975 (© The British Library Board, c13103-40, Add. 49596 f.90v). Inset: Madonna Lily, Lilium candidum L. (author).
Ecclesiastical Landscapes in early Medieval Galicia: Physical and Symbolic Transformations
	José Carlos Sánchez-Pardo and Marco V. García Quintela
		Figure 1. Location map of Galicia in Europe and Northwest Iberia, with indication of the two cases studies discussed in the paper.
		Figure 2. Evolution of the vegetation cover as indicated by tree and shrub pollen analysis of a peat bog from Xistral Mountains (North Galicia). Graph made by A. Martínez Cortizas from Martínez Cortizas et al. 2005.
		Figure 3. Archaeological interventions in agrarian structures (adapted from Ballesteros 2010). The circles indicate the cases studied by Ballesteros, in white those with radiocarbon datings. The white square indicates the fishery dated by OSL and studied
		Figure 4. Evolution of metal pollution and pollen tree in Northwest Iberia in the last 5000 years (made by A. Martínez Cortizas from Martínez Cortizas et al. 2005; Mighall et al. 2006; Pontevedra Pombal et al. 2013).
		Figure 5. Some of the main properties of the monastery of Samos in the 8th and 9th centuries AD cited in the text.
		Figure 6. General view of Augas Santas parish territory (above), and images of the “Forno da Santa” and “Pioucas de Santa Mariña” (below).
		Figure 7. Different views of Santa Mariña de Augas Santas area and the feast of Santa Mariña.
		Figure 8. Multi-layered Christianisation of the Vacariza rock-carving, as explained in the text.
Stone Building in the Alps: Müstair Monastery in its Landscape Context
	Sophie Hüglin and Patrick Cassitti
		Figure 1: Müstair Monastery seen from west. The valley continues across the Swiss-Italian border through Taufers/Tubre to the Upper Adige Valley at Mals/Malles (Photo: S. Hüglin 2019).
		Figure 2: Relief of lower Müstair Valley with neighbouring Vinschgau Valley. Müstair Monastery sits at the foot of a large alluvial fan coming from Avigna Valley (Illustration: P. Cassitti based on free online digital terrain models from swisstopo and Geo
		Figure 3: Distribution of Bronze and Iron Age houses with stone cellars – so-called case retiche – in the Upper Adige region (IT) including Ramosch in Engadin (CH) (Illustration: S. Hüglin based on Google Earth and Marzatico/Solano 2013, 270, fig. 2).
		Figure 4: Selection of transalpine distribution of Roman and Late Antique stone buildings in the Upper Adige (IT) with sites in Müstair Valley and Engadin (CH) in the West and the Eisack Valley with Säben and St Lorenzen (IT) in the east (Illustration: S.
		Figure 5: Distribution of early medieval stone architecture in the Upper Adige (IT) with sites in the Müstair (CH) and Eisack Valleys (IT) (Illustration: S. Hüglin based on Google Earth).
		Figure 6: Detail from late 15th century map by Henricus Martellus Germanus. Insularium Illustratum, Ms. 698, fol. 64v. The river in Müstair Valley is indicated in red ink as ‘lades f.’ (Cliché CNRS-IRHT, ©Bibliothèque et archives du château de Chantilly).
		Figure 7: Phase plan of Müstair Monastery: grey = current buildings, orange = Bronze Age settlement, green = late Antique post building, blue = Carolingian convent AD 775d with church St John in the northeast and Holy Cross Chapel in the southeast corner,
		Figure 8: The ecclesiastical landscape of the Central Alps in the Early Middle Ages: monasteries and episcopal sees (Illustration: S. Hüglin based on Google Earth).
Rural Monasteries and Wilderness in Carolingian Northern Italy: Forest, Water and Ecclesiastical Landscapes
	Marco Panato
		Figure 1. Early medieval Po valley, hydrological reconstruction and places cited in the text.
		Figure 2. The Veronese, its watercourses and the new 8th-9th century settlements.
		Figure 3. Santa Maria of Gazzo and its epigraphical inscription. Source: Oliviero Ghisellini.
		Figure 4. San Pietro in Valle. Source: Francesco Fullone.
		Figure 5. Nogara and the 9th century site close to the Tartaro (elaboration from Saggioro 2012).
		Figure 6. Banks stabilisation in Nogara (elaboration from Saggioro 2012).
Similarities and Differences of a Benedictine and a Cistercian Abbey as Reflected in the Landscape. Beginnings for a Comparative Approach
	Ünige Bencze
		Figure 1. The estate clusters of Cluj-Mănăştur in Cluj County (Bencze, Toda 2019: 102/Fig. 1).
		Figure 2. Mills near Băgara on the First Military Survey (https://mapire.eu/en/browse/country/) (left) and one of the mill buildings today (right).
		Figure 3. In the valley the drained site of the marshland Darwasto.
		Figure 4. The site of Cârţa, before (left: on an ortophoto from 2005 with a possible early modern pond) and after (right: on Google Earth in 2019) the establishment of a modern fishery in 2014.
		Figure 5. Fishponds above Chinteni as seen on the First (left) and Second (right) Military Surveys (https://mapire.eu/en/browse/country/).
		Figure 6. Interpretation map of the features connected to water management in Cârţa: 1. Outline of the preserved buildings (church and eastern wing) 2. Modern buildings 3. Artificial canal which directed water from one of the springs to the monastic build
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