Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology (11th Edition)

Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright  Page
Dedication Page
Brief Contents
Preface
	Acknowledgments
	Learning path
	Visual program
Table of CONTENTS (with direct page links)
1 An Introduction to Geology
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	1.1 Geology: The Science of Earth
		Physical and Historical Geology
		Geology, People, and the Environment
	GEOGRAPHICS: World Population Passes 7 BILLION
	1.2 The Development of Geology
		Catastrophism
		The Birth of Modern Geology
		Geology Today
		The Magnitude of Geologic Time
	1.3 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry
		Hypothesis
		Theory
		Scientific Methods
		Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry
	1.4 Earth’s Spheres
		Hydrosphere
		Atmosphere
		Biosphere
		Geosphere
	1.5 Earth as a System
		Earth System Science
		The Earth System
	1.6 Early Evolution of Earth
		Origin of Planet Earth
		Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure
	GEOGRAPHICS: Solar System: Size and Scale
	1.7 Earth’s Internal Structure
		Earth’s Crust
		Earth’s Mantle
		Earth’s Core
	1.8 Rocks and the Rock Cycle
		The Basic Cycle
		Alternative Paths
	1.9 The Face of Earth
		Major Features of the Continents
		Major Features of the Ocean Floor
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
2 Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	2.1 From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics
	2.2 Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time
		Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
		Evidence: Fossils Match Across the Seas
		Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features
		Evidence: Ancient Climates
	2.3 The Great Debate
		Rejection of the Drift Hypothesis
	GEOGRAPHICS: The Breakup of Pangaea
	2.4 The Theory of Plate Tectonics
		Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere
		Earth’s Major Plates
		Plate Boundaries
	2.5 Divergent Plate Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading
		Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
		Continental Rifting
	2.6 Convergent Plate Boundaries and Subduction
		Oceanic–Continental Convergence
		Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence
		Continental–Continental Convergence
	2.7 Transform Plate Boundaries
	2.8 Testing the Plate Tectonics Model
		Evidence: Ocean Drilling
		Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
		Evidence: Paleomagnetism
	2.9 How Is Plate Motion Measured?
		Geologic Evidence for Plate Motion
		Measuring Plate Motion from Space
		How Does Plate Motion Affect Plate Boundaries?
	2.10 What Drives Plate Motions?
		Forces That Drive Plate Motion
		Models of Plate–Mantle Convection
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
3 Matter and Minerals
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	3.1 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks
		Defining a Mineral
		What Is a Rock?
	3.2 Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals
		Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
		Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons
	3.3 Why Atoms Bond
		The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds
		Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred
		Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing
		Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move
		Hybrid Bonds
	3.4 How Do Minerals Form?
		Precipitation of Mineral Matter
		Crystallization of Molten Rock
		Deposition as a Result of Biological Processes
	3.5 Physical Properties of Minerals
		Optical Properties
		Crystal Shape, or Habit
		Mineral Strength
		Density and Specific Gravity
		Other Properties of Minerals
	GEOGRAPHICS: Gold
	3.6 Mineral Structures and Compositions
		Mineral Structures
		Compositional Variations in Minerals
		Structural Variations in Minerals
	3.7 How Minerals Are Classified
		Classifying Minerals
		Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals
	3.8 The Silicates
		Silicate Structures
		Joining Silicate Structures
	3.9 Common Silicate Minerals
		The Light Silicates
		The Dark Silicates
	3.10 Important nonsilicate Minerals
	GEOGRAPHICS: Gemstones
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
4 Magma, Igneous Rocks, and Intrusive Activity
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	4.1 Magma: Parent Material of Igneous Rock
		The Nature of Magma
		From Magma to Crystalline Rock
		Igneous Processes
	4.2 Igneous Compositions
		Granitic (Felsic) versus Basaltic (Mafic) Compositions
		Other Compositional Groups
		Silica Content as an Indicator of Composition
	4.3 Igneous Textures: What Can They Tell Us?
		Types of Igneous Textures
	GEOGRAPHICS: Granite: An Intrusive Igneous Rock
	4.4 Naming Igneous Rocks
		Granitic (Felsic) Igneous Rocks
		Andesitic (Intermediate) Igneous Rocks
		Basaltic (Mafic) Igneous Rocks
		Pyroclastic Rocks
	4.5 Origin of Magma
		Generating Magma from Solid Rock
	4.6 How Magmas Evolve
		Bowen’s Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks
		Magmatic Differentiation and Crystal Settling
		Assimilation and Magma Mixing
	4.7 Partial Melting and Magma Composition
		Formation of Basaltic Magma
		Formation of Andesitic and Granitic Magmas
	4.8 Intrusive Igneous Activity
		Nature of Intrusive Bodies
		Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes and Sills
		Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, and Laccoliths
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
5 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	5.1 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions
		Factors Affecting Viscosity
		Quiescent versus Explosive Eruptions
	GEOGRAPHICS: Eruption of Mount St. Helens
	5.2 Materials Extruded During an Eruption
		Lava Flows
		Gases
		Pyroclastic Materials
	5.3 Anatomy of a Volcano
	GEOGRAPHICS: Comparison of Three Types of Volcanic Cones
	5.4 Shield Volcanoes
		Mauna Loa: Earth’s Largest Shield Volcano
		Evolution of Volcanic Islands
	GEOGRAPHICS: Kilauea’s East Rift Zone Eruption
	5.5 Cinder Cones
		Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone
	5.6 Composite Volcanoes
	5.7 Volcanic Hazards
		Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature
		Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones
		What Are Other Volcanic Hazards?
	GEOGRAPHICS: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, AD 79
	5.8 Other Volcanic Landforms
		Calderas
		Fissure Eruptions and Large Igneous Provinces
		Lava Domes
		Volcanic Necks and Pipes
	5.9 Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity
		Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries
		Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries
		Intraplate Volcanism
	5.10 Monitoring Volcanic Activity
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
6 Weathering and Soil
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	6.1 Weathering
	GEOGRAPHICS: Some Everyday Examples of Weathering
	6.2 Mechanical Weathering
		Frost Wedging
		Salt Crystal Growth
		Sheeting
		Biological Activity
	GEOGRAPHICS: The Old Man of the Mountain
	6.3 Chemical Weathering
		Dissolution
		Oxidation
		Hydrolysis
		Spheroidal Weathering
	6.4 Rates of Weathering
		Rock Characteristics
		Climate
		Differential Weathering
	GEOGRAPHICS: Acid Precipitation: A Human Impact on the Earth System
	6.5 Soil
		An Interface in the Earth System
		What Is Soil?
	6.6 Controls of Soil Formation
		Parent Material
		Time
		Climate
		Plants and Animals
		Topography
	6.7 The Soil Profile
	6.8 Classifying Soils
	6.9 The Impact of Human Activities on Soil
		Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest—A Case Study of Human Impact on Soil
		Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource
	GEOGRAPHICS: The 1930s Dust Bowl: An Environmental Disaster
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
7 Sedimentary Rocks
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	7.1 The Importance of Sedimentary Rocks
	7.2 Origins of Sedimentary Rock
	7.3 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
		Shale
		Sandstone
		Conglomerate and Breccia
	7.4 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
		Limestone
		Dolostone
		Chert
		Evaporites
	GEOGRAPHICS: Limestone: An Important and Versatile Commodity
	7.5 Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock
	GEOGRAPHICS: Coal: A Major Energy Source
	7.6 Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification
		Diagenesis
		Lithification
	7.7 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
	7.8 Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments
		Types of Sedimentary Environments
		Sedimentary Facies
	7.9 Sedimentary Structures
	7.10 The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
8 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	8.1 What Is Metamorphism?
	8.2 What Drives Metamorphism?
		Heat as a Metamorphic Agent
		Confining Pressure
		Differential Stress
		Chemically Active Fluids
		The Importance of Parent Rock
	8.3 Metamorphic Textures
		Foliation
		Foliated Textures
		Other Metamorphic Textures
	8.4 Common Metamorphic Rocks
		Foliated Rocks
		Nonfoliated Rocks
	GEOGRAPHICS: Marble
	8.5 Metamorphic Environments
		Contact or Thermal Metamorphism
		Hydrothermal Metamorphism
		Burial and Subduction Zone Metamorphism
		Regional Metamorphism
		Other Metamorphic Environments
	GEOGRAPHICS: Impact Metamorphism
	8.6 Metamorphic Zones
		Textural Variations
		Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade
	8.7 Interpreting Metamorphic Environments
		Common Metamorphic Facies
		Metamorphic Facies and Plate Tectonics
		Mineral Stability and Metamorphic Environments
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
9 Geologic Time
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	9.1 Creating a Time Scale—Relative Dating Principles
		The Importance of a Time Scale
		Numerical and Relative Dates
		Principle of Superposition
		Principle of Original Horizontality
		Principle of Lateral Continuity
		Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
		Inclusions
		Unconformities
		Applying Relative Dating Principles
	GEOGRAPHICS: Dating the lunar Surface
	9.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past life
		Types of Fossils
		Conditions Favoring Preservation
	9.3 Correlation of Rock layers
		Correlation Within Limited Areas
		Fossils and Correlation
	GEOGRAPHICS: How Is Paleontology Different from Archaeology?
	9.4 Dating with Radioactivity
		Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure
		Radioactivity
		Half-Life
		Using Various Isotopes
		Dating with Carbon-14
	9.5 The Geologic Time Scale
		Structure of the Time Scale
		Precambrian Time
		Terminology and the Geologic Time Scale
	GEOGRAPHICS: Did Humans and Dinosaurs Ever Coexist?
	9.6 Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary Strata
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
10 Crustal Deformation
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	10.1 What Causes Rock to Deform?
		Stress: The Force That Deforms Rocks
		Strain: A Change in Shape Caused by Stress
	10.2 How Do Rocks Deform?
		Elastic, Brittle, and Ductile Deformation
		Factors That Affect Rock Strength
		Ductile Versus Brittle Deformation and the Resulting Rock Structures
	10.3 Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation
		Anticlines and Synclines
		Domes and Basins
		Monoclines
	10.4 Faults and Joints: Rock Structures Formed by Brittle Deformation
		Dip-Slip Faults
		Strike-Slip Faults
		Oblique-Slip Faults
		Joints
	GEOGRAPHICS: The San Andreas Fault System
	10.5 Mapping Geologic Structures
		Strike and Dip
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
11 Earthquakes and Earthquake Hazards
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	11.1 What Is an Earthquake?
		Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes
		Aftershocks and Foreshocks
	11.2 Faults and Earthquakes
		Types of Faults
		Fault Rupture and Propagation
	11.3 Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves
		Instruments That Record Earthquakes
		Seismic Waves
	GEOGRAPHICS: Finding the Epicenter of an Earthquake
	11.4 Determining the Size of Earthquakes
		Intensity Scales
		Magnitude Scales
	GEOGRAPHICS: Historic Earthquakes East of the Rockies
	11.5 Earthquake Destruction
		Destruction from Seismic Vibrations
		Landslides and Ground Subsidence
		Fire
		What Is a Tsunami?
	11.6 Earthquake Belts and Plate Boundaries
	11.7 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?
		Short-Range Predictions
		Long-Range Forecasts
	GEOGRAPHICS: Seismic Risks on the San Andreas Fault System
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
12 Earth’s Interior
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Earth’s Internal Structure
		Gravity and Layered Planets
		Mineral Phase Changes
	Probing Earth’s Interior
		“Seeing” Seismic Waves
	GEOGRAPHICS: Recreating the Deep Earth
	Earth’s Layers
		Earth’s Crust
		Earth’s Mantle
		Earth’s Core
	Earth’s Temperature
		How Did Earth Get So Hot?
		Heat Flow
		Earth’s Temperature Profile
	Earth’s Three-Dimensional Structure
		Earth’s Gravity
		Seismic Tomography
		Earth’s Magnetic Field
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
13 Divergent Boundaries: Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor
		Mapping the Seafloor
		Provinces of the Ocean Floor
	Continental Margins
		Passive Continental Margins
		Active Continental Margins
	Features of Deep-Ocean Basins
		Deep-Ocean Trenches
		Abyssal Plains
		Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor
	Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge
	GEOGRAPHICS: Explaining Coral Atolls: Darwin’s Hypothesis
	Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
		Seafloor Spreading
		Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?
		Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography
	The Nature of Oceanic Crust
		How Does Oceanic Crust Form?
		Interactions Between Seawater and Oceanic Crust
	GEOGRAPHICS: Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents
	Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin
		Evolution of an Ocean Basin
		Mechanisms for Continental Rifting
	Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere
		Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts
		Subducting Plates: The Demise of Ocean Basins
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
14 Convergent Boundaries: Origin of Mountains
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Mountain Building
	Convergence and Subducting Plates
		Major Features of Subduction Zones
		Extension and Back-Arc Spreading
	Subduction and Mountain Building
		Island Arc–Type Mountain Building
		Andean-Type Mountain Building
		Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and Great Valley
	Collisional Mountain Belts
		Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building
		Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions
		The Himalayas
		The Appalachians
	Fault-Block Mountains
		The Basin and Range Province
	What Causes Earth’s Varied Topography?
		The Principle of Isostasy
		Mantle Convection: A Cause of Vertical Crustal Movement
	GEOGRAPHICS: The Laramide Rockies
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
15 Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	The Importance of Mass Wasting
		Landslides as Geologic Hazards
		The Role of Mass Wasting in Landform Development
		Slopes Change Through Time
	GEOGRAPHICS: Landslides as Natural Disasters
	Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting
		The Role of Water
		Oversteepened Slopes
		Removal of Vegetation
		Earthquakes as Triggers
		Landslides Without Triggers?
	Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes
		Type of Material
		Type of Motion
		Rate of Movement
	Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting
		Slump
		Rockslide
		Debris Flow
		Earthflow
	Slow Movements
		Creep
		Solifluction
		The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape
	GEOGRAPHICS: Landslide Risks: United States and Worldwide
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
16 Running Water
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle
	Running Water
		Drainage Basins
		River Systems
	Streamflow
		Factors Affecting Flow Velocity
		Changes Downstream
	GEOGRAPHICS: What Are the Largest Rivers?
	The Work of Running Water
		Stream Erosion
		Transport of Sediment by Streams
		Deposition of Sediment by Streams
	Stream Channels
		Bedrock Channels
		Alluvial Channels
	Shaping Stream Valleys
		Base Level and Graded Streams
		Valley Deepening
		Valley Widening
		Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces
	Depositional Landforms
		Deltas
		The Mississippi River Delta
		Natural Levees
		Alluvial Fans
	Drainage Patterns
		Formation of a Water Gap
		Headward Erosion and Stream Piracy
	GEOGRAPHICS: Flash Floods
	Floods and Flood Control
		Types of Floods
		Flood Recurrence Intervals
		Flood Control
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
17 Groundwater
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	The Importance of Groundwater
		Groundwater and the Hydrosphere
		Geologic Importance of Groundwater
	GEOGRAPHICS: Our Water Supply
	The Distribution of Groundwater
	The Water Table
		Variations in the Water Table
		Interaction Between Groundwater and Streams
	Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater
		Porosity
		Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers
	How Groundwater Moves
		A Simple Groundwater Flow System
		Measuring Groundwater Movement
		Different Scales of Movement
	Wells
	GEOGRAPHICS: Drought Impacts the Hydrologic System
	Artesian Systems
	Springs, Hot Springs, and Geysers
		Springs
		Hot Springs
		Geysers
	Environmental Problems
		Mining Groundwater
		Subsidence
		Saltwater Contamination
		Groundwater Contamination
	The Geologic Work of Groundwater
		Caverns
		Karst Topography
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
18 Glaciers and Glaciation
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles
		Valley (Alpine) Glaciers
		Ice Sheets
		Other Types of Glaciers
	Formation and Movement of Glacial Ice
		Glacial Ice Formation
		Movement of a Glacier
		Rates of Glacial Movement
		Budget of a Glacier
	GEOGRAPHICS: Antarctica Fact File
	Glacial Erosion
	Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion
		Glaciated Valleys
		Arêtes and Horns
		Roches Moutonnées
	Glacial Deposits
		Glacial Till
		Stratified Drift
	Landforms Made of Till
		Lateral and Medial Moraines
		End and Ground Moraines
		Drumlins
	Landforms Made of Stratified Drift
		Outwash Plains and Valley Trains
		Ice-Contact Deposits
	Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers
		Crustal Subsidence and Rebound
		Sea-Level Changes
		Changes to Rivers and Valleys
		Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes
		Pluvial Lakes
	GEOGRAPHICS: Earth’s Shrinking Glaciers
	The Glacial Theory and the Ice Age
	Causes of Ice Ages
		Plate Tectonics
		Variations in Earth’s Orbit
		Other Factors
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
19 Deserts and Winds
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands
		What Is Meant by Dry?
		Subtropical Deserts and Steppes
		Middle-Latitude Deserts and Steppes
	Geologic Processes in Arid Climates
		Weathering
		The Role of Water
	Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape
	GEOGRAPHICS: Common Misconceptions About Deserts
	Transportation of Sediment by Wind
		Bed Load
		Suspended Load
	Wind Erosion
		Deflation and Blowouts
		Desert Pavement
		Ventifacts and Yardangs
	Wind Deposits
		Sand Deposits
		Types of Sand Dunes
		Loess (Silt) Deposits
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
20 Shorelines
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface
		The Coastal Zone
		Basic Features
		Beaches
	GEOGRAPHICS: A Brief Tour of America’s Coasts
	Waves
		Wave Characteristics
		Circular Orbital Motion
		Waves in the Surf Zone
	The Work of Waves
		Wave Erosion
		Sand Movement on the Beach
	Shoreline Features
		Erosional Features
		Depositional Features
		The Evolving Shore
	Stabilizing the Shore
		Hard Stabilization
		Alternatives to Hard Stabilization
	Erosion Problems Along U.S. Coasts
		Atlantic and Gulf Coasts
		Pacific Coast
	Hurricanes: The Ultimate Coastal Hazard
		Profile of a Hurricane
		Hurricane Destruction
		Detecting and Tracking Hurricanes
	Coastal Classification
		Emergent Coasts
		Submergent Coasts
	GEOGRAPHICS: Hurricane Katrina from Space
	Tides
		Causes of Tides
		Monthly Tidal Cycle
		Tidal Patterns
		Tidal Currents
		Tides and Earth’s Rotation
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
21 Global Climate Change
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Climate and Geology
		The Climate System
		Climate–Geology Connections
	How Is Climate Change Detected?
		Seafloor Sediment—A Storehouse of Climate Data
		Oxygen Isotope Analysis
		Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice
		Tree Rings—Archives of Environmental History
		Other Types of Proxy Data
	Some Atmospheric Basics
		Composition of the Atmosphere
		Extent and Structure of the Atmosphere
	Heating the Atmosphere
		Energy from the Sun
		The Paths of Incoming Solar Energy
		Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect
	Natural Causes of Climate Change
		Plate Movements and Orbital Variations
		Volcanic Activity and Climate Change
		Solar Variability and Climate
	Human Impact on Global Climate
		Rising CO[Sub(2)] Levels
		The Atmosphere’s Response
		The Role of Trace Gases
	GEOGRAPHICS: Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions
	Climate-Feedback Mechanisms
		Types of Feedback Mechanisms
		Computer Models of Climate: Important Yet Imperfect Tools
	How Aerosols Influence Climate
	Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming
		Sea-Level Rise
		The Changing Arctic
		Increasing Ocean Acidity
		The Potential for “Surprises”
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
22 Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic Time
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Is Earth Unique?
		The Right Planet
		The Right Location
		The Right Time
		Viewing Earth’s History
	Birth of a Planet
		From the Big Bang to Heavy Elements
		From Planetesimals to Protoplanets
		Earth’s Early Evolution
	Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans
		Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere
		Oxygen in the Atmosphere
		Evolution of the Oceans
	Precambrian History: The Formation of Earth’s Continents
		Earth’s First Continents
		The Making of North America
		Supercontinents of the Precambrian
	Geologic History of the Phanerozoic: The Formation of Earth’s Modern Continents
		Paleozoic History
		Mesozoic History
		Cenozoic History
	Earth’s First Life
		Origin of Life
		Earth’s First Life: Prokaryotes
	GEOGRAPHICS: Evolution of Life Through Geologic Time
	Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
		Early Paleozoic Life-Forms
		Vertebrates Move to Land
		Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates
		The Great Permian Extinction
	Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs
		Gymnosperms: The Dominant Mesozoic Trees
		Reptiles: Dominating the Land, Sea, and Sky
	Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
		From Reptiles to Mammals
		Marsupial and Placental Mammals
		Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion
		Large Mammals and Extinction
	GEOGRAPHICS: Demise of the Dinosaur
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
23 Energy and Mineral Resources
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources
	Energy Resources: Traditional Fossil Fuels
		Coal
		Oil and Natural Gas
	Oil Sands, Oil Shale, and Gas Hydrates
		Oil Sands
		Oil Shale
		Gas Hydrates: A Fuel from Ocean-Floor Sediments
	Nuclear Energy
		Uranium
		Obstacles to Development
	Renewable Energy
		Solar Energy
		Wind Energy
		Hydroelectric Power
		Geothermal Energy
		Biomass: Renewable Energy from Plants and Animals
		Tidal Power
	Mineral Resources
	GEOGRAPHICS: Alberta’s Oil Sands
	Igneous and Metamorphic Processes
		Magmatic Segregation
		Diamonds
		Hydrothermal Solutions
		Metamorphic Processes
	Mineral Resources Related to Surface Processes
		Weathering and Ore Deposits
		Placer Deposits
	Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
		Building Materials
		Industrial Minerals
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
24 Touring Our Solar System
	Outline
	Focus on Concepts
	Our Solar System: An Overview
		Nebular Theory: Formation of the Solar System
		The Planets: Internal Structures and Atmospheres
		Planetary Impacts
	Earth’s Moon: A Chip Off the Old Block
		How Did the Moon Form?
	GEOGRAPHICS: Is Earth on a Collision Course?
	Terrestrial Planets
		Mercury: The Innermost Planet
		Venus: The Veiled Planet
		Mars: The Red Planet
	GEOGRAPHICS: Mars Exploration
	Jovian Planets
		Jupiter: Lord of the Heavens
		Saturn: The Elegant Planet
		Uranus and Neptune: Twins
	Small Solar System Bodies
		Asteroids: Leftover Planetesimals
		Comets: Dirty Snowballs
		Meteoroids: Visitors to Earth
		Dwarf Planets
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Tought
Appendix A: Metric and English Units Compared
Glossary
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
INDEX (with direct page links)
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z