Earth's Magnetosphere: Formed by the Low-Latitude Boundary Layer

Front-Matter_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Front Matter
Copyright_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Copyright
Dedication_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Dedication
Preface-to-the-first-edition_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Preface to the first edition
		References
Preface-to-the-second-edition_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Preface to the second edition
		References
Acknowledgments_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Acknowledgments
1---Historical-introduction_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Historical introduction
		Early history
		International Geophysical Year
		International Magnetospheric Study
			Importance of three dimensions
			ISEE spacecraft
		Electric and magnetic fields in space
			Effect of an electric field
			Effect of a magnetic field
			Nonelectromagnetic forces
			Combined fields: E-cross-B drift
			Particle motion in a magnetic field
			Magnetic moment: First invariant
			Bounce motion: Second invariant
			Gradient B drift
			Curvature drift
			Collections of particles
			Potential functions
		Reference frames and frozen fields
		Coronal expansion
		Solar wind
			Interplanetary magnetic field
			Collisionless shock waves
			De Hoffman-Teller frame
			The quasiperpendicular shock
			Energetic particles and foreshocks
		Magnetosheath
			Gas-dynamic model
			Average properties
		Magnetopause
		Cause and effect at the magnetopause
			Dungey model
				De Hoffmann-Teller frame
				Walén test
				Energy balance
				Reconnection rate
			Axford-Hines model
			Dynamic processes
				Impulsive penetration
				Plasma transfer event
		Low-latitude boundary layer
		Discovery of the radiation belt
			Magnetic field lines and the L parameter
			Pseudo-trapping regions
		The ionosphere
			The upper atmosphere
			Photoionization
		High-frequency wave propagation
			Perpendicular propagation
			Appleton-Hartree dispersion
			Clemmow-Mullaly-Allis diagram
			The ionosonde
			Coherent and incoherent scatter radars
		Polar caps
			Polar cap during southward IMF
			Polar cap during northward IMF
		The aurora and substorms
			Akasofu\'s study of substorm aurora
			Iijima and Potemra: Field-aligned currents
			Clauer and McPherron\'s current diversion
			Geomagnetic indices
			Closed field line in the dayside cleft
			Impulsive injections by rocket
			International conferences on substorms
			Introduction to current and future missions
				Cluster
				THEMIS
				MMS
				RBSP
				ICON
		Discussion
		Problems
		References
2---Kirchhoff-s-laws_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Kirchhoff\'s laws
		Introduction
		Circuit analysis
			Lumped constants R, C, and L
			The resistor R
				Circuit and wave approaches
				The steady state
			Electromotive force and sign of E.J
			Capacitance C of an isolated conductor
				Alternating current in capacitors
				Capacitance of a sphere
				The parallel-plate capacitor
			The inductor
				Power and power factors
				Lumped electrodes in space
		Equations of circuit analysis
			Kirchhoff\'s voltage (loop) law
			Kirchhoff\'s current (node) law
			Wheatstone bridge
		Series resonant circuit
		Other circuit theorems
			Superposition theorem
			Thévenin\'s theorem
			Tellegen\'s theorem
		Radiation from oscillating dipoles
			Magnetic dipole radiation
			Radiation from a distribution of charges and currents
		Discussion
		Summary
		Problems
		References
3---Helmholtz-s-theorem_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Helmholtz\'s theorem
		Introduction
			Definition of a vector
			Source point versus field point
			Dirac delta function
		Helmholtz\'s theorem
			Irrotational source: Conservative
			Nonconservative source: Solenoidal
		Maxwell\'s equations
			Confusion about nonconservative forces
			Two sources for the electric field
			Charge separation can never extinguish induction fields
			Principle of superposition
		Gauss\'s law
		Gauge conditions
			Lorentz gauge
			Coulomb gauge
		Electrodynamics
			The fields of moving charges
			Radiation from moving charges
			The Liénard-Wiechert potentials
			Physical explanation of radiation
		Sporadic magnetopause beams
		Particle simulation in 1D
			Simulation results
			Confirmation
		Exceptional electron beam observation
			Details of the electron beam
			Evolution of the beam
			Comparison to simulations
		Other observations of energization
			Counterstreaming particles
			Inverse velocity dispersion bursts
			Global substorm onset
		Discussion
			Simulations of plasma response
			Electron holes and Debye shielding
			Untrapped electrons
			Broadband electrostatic noise
			Another source of high energies
		Summary
			Parallel component
			Transverse component
			Global onset
			Lightning strike!
			Simulations agree with observations
			Energization to very high energies
		Problems
		References
4---Magnetohydrodynamic-equations_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Magnetohydrodynamic equations
		Chapter outline
		Introduction
		Basic magnetohydrodynamic equations
			Equations for linear waves
			Equation of state
		Example of MHD for magnetospheric research
			The four-field junction
			Changes in the energy conversion
		Recent advances in MHD simulations
			Turbulent flow
			Buoyancy waves
		Discussion
			Magnetospheric convection
			The convection electric field
		Summary
		Problems
		References
5---Poynting-s-energy-conservation-theorem_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Poynting\'s energy conservation theorem
		Chapter outline
		Introduction
		The electric displacement: D field
		The magnetic field H
		Poynting\'s theorem
			The steady state
			Electric energy
			Magnetic energy
				Tangential discontinuity
				Rotational discontinuity
		Discussion
			Concept of a plasma transfer event
		Plasma transfer event seen by Cluster
		Three systems
		3D reconnection
			Magnetic topology
			Properties of 3D reconnection
		Scientific paradigms
		Summary
		Problems
		References
6---Magnetopause_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Magnetopause
		Introduction
		Solar wind-magnetopause interaction
			Superposed epoch analysis
				Magnetic field rotation on magnetopause
				Magnetic pressure
				Perpendicular plasma pressure
				Total pressure
				Plasma β
			Magnetic field normal to magnetopause
				Plasma velocity tangential to magnetopause
				Plasma depletion in the transition layer
				Plasma bulk velocity normal to magnetopause
				Dawn/dusk asymmetries
		ISEE observations
		Profile of magnetopause electron temperature
			Dynamo versus electrical load
			One detailed crossing
		Impulsive penetration
			Plasma entry across the magnetopause
			Relevant plasma experiments
			Plasma weakly diamagnetic (β1)
			Plasma strongly diamagnetic (β1)
			Simulations of plasma beams
			Draping of magnetosheath plasma
			Transient auroral event
		Flux transfer event
		Cluster observations of plasma transfer
			CIS ion data
			WHISPER plasma emissions
			PEACE electron data
			EFW data
		Plasma transfer event
			Fundamentals of a plasma transfer event
			Localized pressure pulse
			Response of the plasma: Bn=0
			Response of the plasma: Bn finite
			Tangential motion
		Skimming orbit of GEOTAIL
			Overview of Comprehensive Plasma Instrumentation data
			Transition diagram
			Inward and outward exists
		Electric field at high sampling rates
		MMS observations at the magnetopause
			Mission details
			Observations
		Discussion
			Electrostatic and induction fields
			The dynamo
			Agreement with Walén relation
			Response of the plasma: Bn finite
			Bohm diffusion
			Diversion of the magnetosheath flow
			Change of magnetic interconnection
			Plasma flow
			What is really happening?
		Summary
		Problems
		References
7---High-altitude-cusps_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	High-altitude cusps
		Introduction
		The magnetosheath
			The turbulent magnetosheath
		The cusp throat
			Mixing of solar wind and magnetospheric plasmas
			Statistical properties of the plasma
		Transfer events
		Cusp energetic particles
			Polar data
			Cluster observations
			ISEE-1 and ISEE-2 observations
		Exterior cusp
			Shell degeneracy
			Diamagnetic cavities
			Resonant acceleration in diamagnetic cavities
		Discussion
		Summary
			Transfer events
			Cusp energetic particles
			New energetic particle source
		Problems
		References
8---Inner-magnetosphere_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Inner magnetosphere
		Introduction
			The radiation belts take shape
			Electron acceleration mechanisms
			New measurements needed
		Radiation belts
			Emerging consensus
			January 1997 storm
			October 2013 storm
			Implications
		Transient penetration
			Transient auroral event
			Plasma transfer event
		Ionospheric outflow and coupling
			Winter polar ionosphere
				Soft particle data
				Optical emissions
				Particle-optical comparisons
				Particle-ionosphere comparisons
				Bottomside measurements
				Summary of dark winter polar ionosphere
			TORDO UNO ion streak
			Theta aurora
			Four-cell convection pattern
		Summary
		Problems
		References
9---Low-latitude-boundary-layer_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Low-latitude boundary layer
		Introduction
			Direct support for the low-latitude boundary layer
		Comprehensive investigation of low-latitude boundary layer
			Superposed epoch analysis
			Low versus high magnetic shear
			Dawn side versus dusk side
			Wave spectra and diffusion
		Studies with better resolution
			Cusp passage of DE-2
			Cusp passage of Astrid-2
		Plasma transfer event
		Identification of cusp and cleft/low-latitude boundary layer
		Qualitative description of low-latitude boundary layer
			Sonnerup\'s tutorial
			Alternative description
		Topology of the magnetosphere
		ISEE observations
			Tailward-moving vortex pattern
			Average conditions in the distant tail
			Analysis of Bz data from ISEE-3
			Analysis for Bz for the whole year 1983
		Massive flow in the boundary layer
		Observational summary of the low-latitude boundary layer
		Study with southward interplanetary magnetic field
			Open geomagnetic field lines
			Ionospheric convection
			Poleward moving auroral forms
		Polar cap during northward interplanetary magnetic field
			November 2004 storm
				Surface singularities
			Magnetosheath flow is in control
		Penetration of interplanetary electric field into magnetosphere
		A study with northward interplanetary magnetic field
			Defense Meteorological Satellite Program particle and ionospheric data
			Aurora observations
			Ionospheric tomography
			Synopsis of daytime auroras
		Discussion
			Polar rain
			Relativistic particle access
			Velocity-dispersed ion structures
			ULF wave activity
		Summary
			Magnetosheath flow is in control
			Low-latitude boundary layer
		Problems
		References
10---Driving-the-plasma-sheet_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Driving the plasma sheet
		Introduction
		Transfer of plasma and electric field
		Plasma sheet from low-altitude observations
		Plasma sheet observations
			Direct support for the low-latitude boundary layer
			The Rice Convection Model
			Plasma irreversibly heated
			Other fluid models
		Particle dynamics
			Conservation of entropy
			Effect of collisions
			Raising and lowering mirror points
			Curvature drift
			Energy of auroral particles
			Thin current sheets
			The curvature vector
		Auroral current circuit
			The primary circuit
			Current thinning event
			Quasisteady state of growth
			Aurora study with EISCAT
			Second low-altitude generator
		Key results from SuperDARN, CANOPUS
			Observations
			Conclusions about current buildup
		Large-scale flow dynamics
			Auroral fading
			Proton aurora
			Growth-phase auroras
			Average trend at onset
		Discussion
			Current thinning event
		Summary
		Problems
		References
11---Magnetospheric-substorms_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Magnetospheric substorms
		Introduction
		Statistical description of the substorm
			Data
			Three-step normalization technique
				Normalize substorm time
				Normalize the magnetic local time position
				Normalize the latitudinal extent
				Effectiveness of normalization
			A clear example of expansion
			Six key positions
			Application of the results
			Validation of the Akasofu model
		Two models as apparent alternatives
			Kinetic Alfvén waves and auroral beads
		Substorm disturbance onsets
			Auroral onset brightenings
			Two classes of auroral power
			Action versus reaction
		Substorm transfer event
			Electromotive force to tap magnetic energy
			The first response
			Negative and positive meanders
		Ion dynamics
			Critical cyclotron turn
			Bifurcated neutral sheet current
			Plasma conditions in a thin sheet
		Westward traveling surge
			Substorm current diversion
			THEMIS All Sky Imager observations
			Auroral kilometric radiation
		Bursty bulk flows
			Auroral streamers
			Bubble in plasma sheet
			Transverse E enhancement
			Auroral omega bands
			Some other questions
		Observations of particle acceleration
		Acceleration of cold plasma
			Discharge
			Resonant diamagnetic acceleration
		Space weather implications
			The Saint Patrick\'s Day Storm of 2015
		Discussion
			The real electric field
			Three dimensions
			Cause versus effect
		Summary
		Problems
		References
12---Epilogue_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Epilogue
		Introduction
			Magnetic reconnection
			Particle acceleration
			Plasma-neutral interactions
			Magnetic dynamos
		Main arguments in this book
			Chapter 1: Historical introduction
			Chapter 2: Kirchhoff\'s laws
			Chapter 3: Helmholtz\'s theorem
			Chapter 4: Magnetohydrodynamic equations
			Chapter 5: Poynting\'s energy conservation theorem
			Chapter 6: Magnetopause
			Chapter 7: High-altitude cusps
			Chapter 8: Inner magnetosphere
			Chapter 9: Low-latitude boundary layer
			Chapter 10: Driving the plasma sheet
			Chapter 11: Magnetospheric substorms
		Substorm transfer event
		Four fundamental processes reexamined
			Magnetic reconnection
			Particle acceleration
			Plasma-neutral interactions
			Magnetic dynamos
		Final summary
			Reminders
			Nine new ideas
		References
Index_2021_Earth-s-Magnetosphere
	Index
		A
		B
		C
		D
		E
		F
		G
		H
		I
		J
		K
		L
		M
		N
		O
		P
		Q
		R
		S
		T
		U
		V
		W
		Z