Earth Materials 2nd Edition: Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology

Half title......Page 2
Frontispiece......Page 4
Title page......Page 5
Imprints page......Page 6
Dedication......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 28
Coverage......Page 29
Acknowledgments to First Edition......Page 34
Acknowledgments to Second Edition......Page 37
Chapter 1 Introduction......Page 38
1.1 Formation of Earth’s Chemical Elements in Supernovae......Page 42
1.2 Birth of the Solar System and Earth......Page 45
1.3 Accretion and Early History of the Earth......Page 51
1.4 Internal Structure of the Earth......Page 53
1.5 Cooling of the Planet and Plate Tectonics......Page 56
1.6 Plate Tectonics and the Formation of Rocks......Page 59
1.6.1 Divergent Plate Boundaries......Page 61
1.6.2 Convergent Plate Boundaries......Page 63
1.6.3 Transform Boundaries......Page 65
1.6.4 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots......Page 66
1.7 Outline of Subsequent Chapters......Page 68
Summary......Page 70
Review Questions......Page 73
Online Resources......Page 74
Further Reading......Page 75
Chapter 2 Materials of the Solid Earth......Page 76
2.1 Definition of a Mineral......Page 80
2.1.1 Examples of Some Familiar Minerals......Page 83
2.2 How Are Minerals Classified?......Page 93
2.3 How Are Minerals Named?......Page 95
2.4 What Is a Crystal, and What Is the Crystalline State?......Page 97
2.5 What Is a Rock?......Page 102
2.6 How Do Rocks Form? Classification into Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic......Page 106
2.7 Examples of Some Familiar Rocks......Page 112
2.8 Plate Tectonics and the Generation of Rocks......Page 124
2.8.1 Midocean-ridge Rock Factory......Page 127
2.8.2 Convergent-plate-boundary Rock Factory......Page 129
2.8.3 Continental Divergent-plate-boundary Rock Factory (Rift Valley)......Page 131
2.8.4 Mantle Plume Hot-spot Rock Factory......Page 132
2.8.5 Passive-margin Rock Factories......Page 133
2.8.6 Epeiric-sea Rock Factories......Page 134
2.8.7 Metamorphic Rock Factories......Page 135
Summary......Page 137
Review Questions......Page 139
Online Resources......Page 142
Further Reading......Page 143
Chapter 3 How Are Minerals Identified?......Page 146
3.1 Habit......Page 152
3.2 State of Aggregation......Page 154
3.3 Color and Luster......Page 157
3.3.1 Reasons for Color......Page 164
Play of Color......Page 167
Chatoyancy, Labradorescence, and Asterism......Page 170
Fluorescence......Page 173
Streak......Page 174
3.4 Cleavage......Page 175
3.5 Hardness......Page 183
3.6 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)......Page 188
3.6.1 Specific Gravity and Atomic Structure......Page 189
3.7 Magnetism, Solubility in Acid, and Radioactivity......Page 192
Magnetism......Page 193
Solubility in HCl......Page 194
Radioactivity......Page 195
3.8 Instrumental Methods for the Quantitative Characterization of Minerals......Page 196
3.8.1 X-Ray Powder Diffraction......Page 200
3.8.2 Electron Beam Techniques: Scanning Electron Microscopy, Electron Microprobe Analysis, and Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 206
Electron Microprobe......Page 207
Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 209
Summary......Page 213
Review Questions......Page 216
Further Reading......Page 218
Chapter 4 Fundamentals of Crystal Structures......Page 221
4.1 Naturally Occurring Chemical Elements......Page 225
4.2 Atomic and Ionic Radii......Page 228
4.3 What Factors Control the Packing of Ions (and Atoms) in Mineral Structures?......Page 235
4.4 Pauling’s Rules......Page 247
Rule 1. The Coordination Principle......Page 249
Rule 2. The Electrostatic Valency Principle......Page 252
Rule 3. Sharing of Polyhedral Elements (I)......Page 259
Rule 4. Sharing of Polyhedral Elements (II)......Page 262
Rule 5. The Principle of Parsimony......Page 264
4.5 What Forces Hold Crystal Structures Together?......Page 267
4.5.1 Electronic Configuration of Atoms and Ions......Page 268
Covalent Bonding......Page 275
Ionic Bonding......Page 278
Metallic Bonding......Page 279
Van der Waals Bonding......Page 280
4.6 Atomic Substitutions......Page 284
The size of the atoms or ions:......Page 286
The charge on the ions:......Page 289
The temperature at which atomic substitution occurs.......Page 291
The availability of the ions......Page 293
Interstitial solid solution.......Page 294
Omission solid solution......Page 296
Summary......Page 297
Review Questions......Page 301
Further Reading......Page 303
Chapter 5 Introduction to Crystallography......Page 305
5.1 Symmetry Elements and Operations......Page 309
Mirrors......Page 311
Rotation Axes......Page 312
Center of Symmetry......Page 315
Rotoinversion Axes......Page 322
5.2 Combinations of Symmetry Elements......Page 323
5.3 The Six Crystal Systems......Page 326
5.3.1 Crystallographic Axes......Page 328
5.3.2 Hermann–Mauguin Symmetry Notation......Page 330
5.3.3 Crystallographic Notation for Planes in Crystals......Page 331
5.3.4 Definition of Crystal Form......Page 334
5.3.5 Crystallographic Notation for Directions in Crystals......Page 341
5.4 Crystal Projections......Page 343
5.5 Seven of the Thirty-two Point Groups......Page 350
4/m3¯2/m......Page 363
6/m2/m2/m......Page 365
3¯2/m......Page 368
4/m2/m2/m......Page 370
2/m2/m2/m......Page 372
2/m......Page 374
1¯......Page 377
5.6 Twins......Page 379
5.7 Some Aspects of Space Groups......Page 388
Translation......Page 389
Screw Axes......Page 392
Glide Planes......Page 398
5.7.1 Space Groups......Page 404
5.8 Polymorphism......Page 412
Summary......Page 425
Review Questions......Page 428
Further Reading......Page 431
Chapter 6 Minerals and Rocks Observed under the Polarizing Optical Microscope......Page 432
6.1 Light and the Polarizing Microscope......Page 436
The Components of the Petrographic Microscope......Page 440
6.2 Passage of Light through a Crystal: Refractive Index and Angle of Refraction......Page 443
The Example of Apatite......Page 446
6.3 Passage of Polarized Light through Minerals......Page 448
Looking at Anisotropic Minerals......Page 453
6.4 Accessory Plates and Determination of Fast and Slow Vibration Directions......Page 456
6.5 Extinction Positions and the Sign of Elongation......Page 460
6.6 Anomalous Interference Colors, Pleochroism, and Absorption......Page 463
6.7 Mineral Identification Chart......Page 467
6.8 Uniaxial Optical Indicatrix......Page 469
The Example of Zircon......Page 472
6.9 Biaxial Optical Indicatrix......Page 475
6.10 Uniaxial Interference Figures......Page 478
The Example of Quartz......Page 480
6.11 Determination of Optic Sign from Uniaxial Optic Axis Figure......Page 484
6.12 Biaxial Interference Figures, Optic Sign, and Optic Angle (2V)......Page 485
The Example of Muscovite......Page 489
6.13 Modal Analysis......Page 491
Summary......Page 495
Review Questions......Page 499
Online Resources......Page 501
Further Reading......Page 502
Chapter 7 Igneous Rock-forming Minerals......Page 503
7.1 Common Chemical Elements in the Earth’s Crust and in Mineral and Rock Analyses......Page 506
7.2 Calculation of Mineral Formulas......Page 510
7.3 Triangular Diagrams......Page 516
7.4 Systematic Mineralogical Descriptions of Common Igneous Minerals......Page 521
7.5 Plagioclase Feldspar: NaAlSi3O8–CaAl2Si2O8albite(Ab)anorthite(An)......Page 526
7.6 K-Feldspar: KAlSi3O8 with Three Polymorphs (Microcline, Orthoclase, and Sanidine)......Page 533
7.7 Quartz: SiO2 and Polymorphs Tridymite, Cristobalite, Coesite, and Stishovite......Page 537
7.8 Nepheline: (Na,K)AlSiO4......Page 540
7.9 Leucite: KAlSi2O6......Page 543
7.10 Sodalite: Na4Al3Si3O12Cl......Page 546
7.11 Enstatite: MgSiO3−(Mg,Fe)SiO3......Page 549
7.12 Pigeonite: ~Ca0.25(Mg,Fe)1.75Si2O6......Page 553
7.13 Augite: (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6......Page 559
7.14 Aegirine: NaFe3+Si2O6......Page 563
7.15 Hornblende: (Na,K)0−1Ca2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2......Page 565
7.16 Muscovite: KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2......Page 569
7.17 Phlogopite: KMg3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2......Page 573
7.18 Biotite: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2......Page 577
7.19 Olivine: (Mg,Fe)2SiO4......Page 579
7.20 Zircon: ZrSiO4......Page 582
7.21 Tourmaline: (Na,Ca,K)(Fe2+,Mg,Al,Mn,Li)3(Al,Fe3+)6(BO3)3(Si6O18)(OH)3(O,OH,F)......Page 585
7.22 Allanite: (Ca,Ce)2(Al,Fe2+,Fe3+)3(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)......Page 588
7.23 Melilite: (Ca,Na)2(Mg,Al)(Si,Al)2O7......Page 591
7.24 Magnetite: Fe3O4......Page 593
7.25 Chromite: FeCr2O4......Page 596
7.26 Hematite: Fe2O3......Page 598
7.27 Ilmenite: FeTiO3......Page 602
7.28 Rutile: TiO2......Page 605
7.29 Uraninite: UO2......Page 607
7.30 Pyrite: FeS2......Page 610
7.31 Pyrrhotite: Fe1-xS......Page 614
7.32 Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2......Page 617
7.33 Apatite: Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl)......Page 619
Summary......Page 622
Review Questions......Page 624
Further Reading......Page 627
Chapter 8 The Direction and Rate of Natural Processes: An Introduction to Thermodynamics and Kinetics......Page 630
8.1 Basic Thermodynamic Terms......Page 634
System......Page 635
Heat and Work......Page 637
Variables......Page 641
8.2 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 642
8.3 Entropy and the Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics......Page 648
8.4 Gibbs Free Energy......Page 654
8.5 Variation of Gibbs Free Energy with Temperature and Pressure......Page 660
8.6 Variation of Gibbs Free Energy with Composition......Page 662
8.7 Thermodynamic Equilibrium......Page 665
8.8 Thermodynamic Phase Diagrams......Page 667
8.9 Multicomponent Phase Diagrams......Page 671
8.9.1 A Simple Two-component System H2O–NaCl......Page 672
8.9.2 Melting of a Pair of Minerals: the Eutectic......Page 676
Melting and Crystallization in a Simple Eutectic Phase Diagram......Page 681
Igneous Textures Related to a Eutectic......Page 683
8.9.3 Congruent Melting and the Granite and Nepheline Syenite Eutectics......Page 685
8.9.4 Incongruent Melting and the Peritectic......Page 691
Melting and Crystallizing Olivine......Page 695
Melting and Crystallizing Plagioclase......Page 698
Melting and Crystallizing Alkali Feldspars......Page 699
8.9.6 A Simple Ternary Phase Diagram......Page 704
8.9.7 The Ternary Quartz–Albite–Orthoclase “Granite” System......Page 712
8.9.8 A Simple Ternary Basalt System: Diopside–Albite–Anorthite......Page 715
8.9.9 More Complex Phase Diagrams......Page 719
8.10 Rates of Geologic Processes......Page 720
8.10.1 Transport Laws......Page 723
8.10.2 Rates of Activated Processes and the Arrhenius Relation......Page 727
8.11 Radioactive Decay......Page 732
8.11.1 Rate of Radioactive Decay......Page 737
8.11.2 Calculation of Absolute Age Based on Radioactive Decay......Page 741
8.11.3 Absolute Dating by the 87Rb to 87Sr Decay......Page 743
8.11.4 Absolute Dating by the 40K to 40Ar Decay......Page 746
8.11.5 Absolute Dating Using Uranium and Lead......Page 747
8.11.6 Absolute Dating by the 147Sm to 143Nd Decay......Page 750
8.11.7 Blocking Temperature......Page 751
8.11.8 Absolute Dating by the Fission-track Method......Page 753
Summary......Page 755
Review Questions......Page 760
Online Resources......Page 764
Further Reading......Page 765
Chapter 9 How Do Igneous Rocks Form?......Page 768
9.1 Why, and How, Does Solid Rock Become Molten?......Page 774
9.1.1 Composition of the Upper Mantle......Page 775
9.1.2 Melting Range of Upper Mantle Peridotite......Page 777
9.1.3 Latent Heat of Fusion......Page 779
9.1.4 Geothermal Gradient and the Geotherm......Page 781
9.2 Three Primary Causes of Melting and their Plate Tectonic Settings......Page 782
9.2.1 Raising the Temperature of Mantle Peridotite to the Melting Range over Hot Spots......Page 783
9.2.2 Decompression Melting at Divergent Plate Boundaries......Page 784
9.2.3 Fluxing with Water at Convergent Plate Boundaries (Subduction Zones)......Page 785
9.3 Effect of Pressure on Melting......Page 790
9.3.1 Pressure in the Earth......Page 791
9.3.2 Effect of Pressure on the Anhydrous Melting of Rock......Page 792
9.3.3 Hydrous Melting of Rock and the Solubility of Water in Magma......Page 795
9.3.4 Effect of Water Undersaturation on the Melting of Rocks......Page 799
9.3.5 Solubility of Other Gases in Magma......Page 801
9.3.6 Exsolution of Magmatic Gases and Explosive Volcanism......Page 803
9.4 Physical Properties of Magma......Page 811
9.4.1 Magma Density......Page 812
9.4.2 Magma Viscosity......Page 814
9.4.3 Diffusion in Magma, Crystal Growth, and Grain Size of Igneous Rocks......Page 820
9.5 Magma Ascent......Page 823
9.5.1 Buoyancy......Page 824
9.5.2 Buoyant Rise of Magma......Page 826
9.6 Processes Associated with the Solidification of Magma in the Crust......Page 831
9.6.1 Cooling of Bodies of Magma by Heat Conduction......Page 833
Generalizations about the Cooling of Igneous Bodies......Page 835
Effect of Latent Heat of Crystallization on Cooling of Magma......Page 838
9.6.2 Cooling of Bodies of Magma by Convection and Radiation......Page 839
9.6.3 Magmatic Differentiation by Crystal Settling......Page 841
Igneous Cumulates......Page 846
Igneous Layering......Page 848
9.6.4 Compaction of Crystal Mush......Page 851
9.6.5 Assimilation and Fractional Crystallization......Page 853
Assimilation by Reaction......Page 854
9.6.6 Liquid Immiscibility......Page 856
9.7 Evolution of Isotopic Reservoirs in the Earth and the Source of Magma......Page 859
9.7.1 Evolution of 143Nd/144Nd Reservoirs in the Bulk Earth, Mantle, and Crust......Page 860
9.7.2 Evolution of 87Sr/86Sr Reservoirs in the Bulk Earth, Mantle, and Crust......Page 864
Summary......Page 866
Review Questions......Page 870
Online Resources......Page 872
Further Reading......Page 873
Chapter 10 Igneous Rocks......Page 876
10.1 Why an Igneous Rock Classification Is Necessary......Page 880
10.2 Mode of Occurrence of Igneous Rocks......Page 882
Dikes, Sills, and Laccoliths......Page 884
Cone Sheets and Ring Dikes......Page 892
Diatremes......Page 894
Lopoliths......Page 895
Batholiths......Page 897
Stocks......Page 904
10.2.3 Extrusive Igneous Bodies: Flood Basalts, Shield Volcanoes, Composite Volcanoes, Domes, Calderas, Ash-fall and Ash-flow Deposits......Page 905
Flood Basalts......Page 908
Shield Volcanoes......Page 913
Composite Volcanoes......Page 916
Domes......Page 920
Calderas......Page 921
Ash Falls and Ash Flows......Page 924
10.3 International Union of Geological Sciences Classification of Igneous Rocks......Page 930
10.3.1 Mode and Norm......Page 931
10.3.2 IUGS Classification of Igneous Rocks......Page 935
10.3.3 Composition of Common Plutonic Igneous Rocks......Page 944
10.3.4 IUGS Classification of Volcanic Igneous Rocks......Page 945
10.3.5 Irvine–Baragar Classification of Volcanic Rocks......Page 947
10.4 Igneous Rocks and their Plate Tectonic Setting......Page 951
10.4.1 Igneous Rocks Formed at Midocean-ridge Divergent Plate Boundaries......Page 952
10.4.2 Igneous Rocks of Oceanic Islands Formed above Hot Spots......Page 960
10.4.3 Continental Flood Basalts and Large Igneous Provinces......Page 963
10.4.4 Alkaline Igneous Rocks Associated with Continental Rift Valleys......Page 968
10.4.5 Igneous Rocks Formed near Convergent Plate Boundaries......Page 972
Volcanic Arcs......Page 973
Calcalkaline Magma Production above a Subducting Plate......Page 975
Calcalkaline Volcanic Rocks......Page 977
Calcalkaline Plutonic Rocks......Page 981
10.5 Special Precambrian Associations......Page 985
10.5.1 Komatiites......Page 986
10.5.2 Massif-type Anorthosites......Page 989
10.5.3 Rocks Associated with Large Meteorite Impacts......Page 994
Summary......Page 1001
Review Questions......Page 1004
Online Resources......Page 1006
Further Reading......Page 1007
Chapter 11 Sedimentary Rock-forming Minerals and Materials......Page 1009
11.1 The Interaction of the Earth’s Atmosphere with Minerals......Page 1013
11.2 Ice: H2O......Page 1020
11.3 Goethite: FeO(OH)......Page 1025
11.4 Kaolinite: Al2Si2O5(OH)4......Page 1028
11.5 Calcite: CaCO3......Page 1031
11.6 Aragonite: CaCO3......Page 1035
11.7 Dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2......Page 1038
11.8 Magnesite: MgCO3......Page 1042
11.9 Siderite: FeCO3......Page 1045
11.10 Rhodochrosite: MnCO3......Page 1047
11.11 Halite: NaCl......Page 1049
11.12 Sylvite: KCl......Page 1052
11.13 Gypsum: CaSO4·2H2O......Page 1054
11.14 Anhydrite: CaSO4......Page 1057
11.15 Chert and Agate: Both Made of Very Fine-grained SiO2......Page 1059
11.16 Phosphorite......Page 1062
11.17 Soil......Page 1065
Summary......Page 1068
Review Questions......Page 1070
Further Reading......Page 1072
Chapter 12 Formation, Transport, and Lithification of Sediment......Page 1073
12.1 Importance of Sediments in Understanding the History of the Earth......Page 1077
12.2 Sediment Formed from Weathering of Rock......Page 1082
12.2.1 Role of Carbon Dioxide in Weathering......Page 1083
12.2.2 Weathering Products of Rock......Page 1086
12.2.3 Detrital Grain Size......Page 1092
12.2.4 Detrital Grain Roundness and Resistance to Abrasion......Page 1096
12.3 Organically Produced Sediment......Page 1099
12.3.1 Formation of Carbonate and Siliceous Sediment......Page 1100
Deepwater Calcareous and Siliceous Sediment......Page 1104
12.3.2 Formation of Hydrocarbons in Sediment......Page 1106
12.4 Chemically produced sediment......Page 1108
12.5 Sediment Produced by Glacial Erosion......Page 1112
12.6 Transport of Sediment......Page 1116
12.6.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow......Page 1117
Saltation......Page 1120
Suspension of Sedimentary Particles and Stokes’ Law......Page 1121
Bedforms......Page 1122
12.6.3 Movement of particles in turbidity currents......Page 1130
12.6.4 Movement of Sediment in Debris Flows......Page 1134
12.7 Layering in Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks......Page 1135
12.7.1 Law of Superposition......Page 1138
12.7.2 Milankovitch Cycles......Page 1139
12.7.3 Sediments Related to Tectonic Processes......Page 1141
Marine Transgressions and Regressions......Page 1143
12.8 Sites of Deposition and Tectonic Significance......Page 1144
12.8.1 Convergent Plate Boundaries......Page 1145
12.8.2 Passive Continental Margins......Page 1147
12.8.3 Rift and Pull-apart Basins......Page 1148
12.9 Conversion of Unconsolidated Sediment to Sedimentary Rock: Lithification......Page 1152
12.9.1 Porosity and compaction......Page 1153
12.9.2 Cementation of Sediment......Page 1154
12.9.3 Pressure Solution......Page 1157
12.9.4 Recrystallization, Replacement, Dolomitization......Page 1160
Summary......Page 1161
Review Questions......Page 1165
Online Resources......Page 1167
Further Reading......Page 1168
Chapter 13 Sedimentary Rock Classification, Occurrence, and Plate Tectonic Significance......Page 1170
13.1 Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks......Page 1174
13.1.1 Mudrocks (Includes Shales)......Page 1175
Tectonic Setting for Deposition of Mudrocks......Page 1184
13.1.2 Sandstones......Page 1187
Quartz Arenites......Page 1190
Feldspathic Arenites (Arkose)......Page 1194
Lithic Arenites......Page 1196
Wackes (Graywacke)......Page 1197
13.1.3 Conglomerates and Breccias......Page 1200
13.2 Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks......Page 1207
13.2.1 Limestones......Page 1210
Grainstone......Page 1212
Mudstones to Packstones......Page 1214
Boundstones......Page 1219
Lacustrine Limestones......Page 1221
Tufa, Travertine, and Caliche......Page 1222
13.2.2 Dolostones......Page 1226
13.2.3 Tectonic Settings of Carbonate Rocks......Page 1228
13.3 Coals......Page 1229
13.4 Oil and Natural Gas......Page 1231
13.5 Evaporites......Page 1234
13.6 Phosphorites......Page 1236
13.7 Iron-formations......Page 1238
Summary......Page 1239
Review Questions......Page 1243
Online Resources......Page 1246
Further Reading......Page 1247
Chapter 14 Metamorphic Rock-forming Minerals......Page 1248
14.1 Systematic Mineralogical Descriptions of Common Metamorphic Minerals......Page 1251
14.2 Garnet: (Mg2+,Fe2+,Mn2+)3Al2Si3O12 and Ca3(Fe3+,Al3+,Cr3+)2Si3O12......Page 1252
14.3 Andalusite: Al2SiO5......Page 1257
14.4 Sillimanite: Al2SiO5......Page 1260
14.5 Kyanite: Al2SiO5......Page 1262
14.6 Staurolite: Fe3−4Al18Si8O48H2−4......Page 1264
14.7 Diopside: CaMgSi2O6......Page 1267
14.8 Anthophyllite: Mg7Si8O22(OH)2......Page 1269
14.9 Cummingtonite–Grunerite: Fe2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2−Fe7Si8O22(OH)2......Page 1272
14.10 Tremolite–Ferroactinolite: Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2−Ca2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2......Page 1274
14.11 Glaucophane: Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2......Page 1277
14.12 Wollastonite: CaSiO3......Page 1280
14.13 Rhodonite: MnSiO3......Page 1283
14.14 Talc: Mg3Si4O10(OH)2......Page 1286
14.15 Chlorite: (Mg, Al, Fe)6(Si, Al)4O10·(OH)8......Page 1290
14.16 Antigorite: Mg3Si2O5(OH)4......Page 1293
14.17 Chrysotile: Mg3Si2O5(OH)4......Page 1296
14.18 Graphite: C......Page 1299
14.19 Epidote: Ca2Fe3+Al2O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH) Clinozoisite: Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)......Page 1301
14.20 Cordierite: (Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18·nH2O......Page 1304
14.21 Vesuvianite: Ca19(Al,Mg,Fe)13(Si2O7)4(SiO4)10(O,OH,F)10......Page 1306
14.22 Titanite (sphene): CaTiSiO5......Page 1308
14.23 Scapolite: 3NaAlSi3O8·NaCl−3CaAl2Si2O8·CaSO4 (or ·CaCO3)......Page 1310
14.24 Lawsonite: CaAl2(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O......Page 1314
14.25 Pumpellyite: Ca2MgAl2(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O......Page 1316
14.26 Topaz: Al2SiO4(F,OH)2......Page 1318
14.27 Corundum: Al2O3......Page 1320
14.28 Chabazite: Ca2Al2Si4O12·6H2O......Page 1323
Summary......Page 1327
Review Questions......Page 1330
Further Reading......Page 1332
Chapter 15 Metamorphic Rocks......Page 1333
15.1 What Changes Occur during Metamorphism?......Page 1336
15.1.1 An Example of Metamorphic Change......Page 1339
15.2 Why Do Rocks Change?......Page 1344
15.2.1 The Gibbs Free Energy, the Driving Force for Metamorphic Change......Page 1345
15.2.2 Rates of Metamorphic Reactions......Page 1347
15.2.3 The Gibbs Phase Rule and the Number of Minerals a Metamorphic Rock Can Contain......Page 1350
15.3 Metamorphic Grade and Facies......Page 1354
15.4 Textures of Metamorphic Rocks......Page 1364
15.4.1 Textures of Contact Metamorphic Rocks......Page 1367
Slate, Phyllite, Schist, and Gneiss......Page 1369
Migration of Material during the Development of Foliation......Page 1375
Growth of Metamorphic Minerals during Shear......Page 1378
15.5 Simple Descriptive Classification of Metamorphic Rocks......Page 1384
15.6 Metamorphism of Mudrock......Page 1385
15.6.1 Graphical Representation of a Simple Metamorphic Reaction......Page 1386
15.6.2 A Simple Pressure–Temperature Petrogenetic Grid......Page 1390
15.6.3 Metamorphic Field Gradients......Page 1394
15.6.4 Graphical Representation of Mineral Assemblages in Metapelites......Page 1396
15.6.5 Mineral Assemblages in Barrow’s Metamorphic Zones and Part of the Petrogenetic Grid for Metapelites......Page 1400
15.7 Metamorphism of Impure Dolomitic Limestone......Page 1407
15.8 Metamorphism and Partial Melting: Migmatites......Page 1416
15.9 Geothermometers and Geobarometers......Page 1421
15.10 Plate Tectonic Significance of Metamorphism......Page 1426
15.10.1 Pressure–Temperature–time (P–T–t) paths......Page 1427
15.10.2 Plate Tectonic Setting of Metamorphic Facies......Page 1432
Convergent Plate Boundaries......Page 1433
Overview of Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics......Page 1435
Summary......Page 1437
Review Questions......Page 1442
Further Reading......Page 1445
Chapter 16 Some Economic Minerals, Mainly from Veins and Pegmatites......Page 1447
16.1 Gold: Au......Page 1452
16.2 Silver: Ag......Page 1456
16.3 Copper: Cu......Page 1458
16.4 Diamond: C......Page 1460
16.5 Sulfur: S......Page 1464
16.6 Galena: PbS......Page 1467
16.7 Sphalerite: ZnS......Page 1471
16.8 Bornite: Cu5FeS4......Page 1474
16.9 Chalcocite: Cu2S......Page 1478
16.10 Marcasite: FeS2......Page 1481
16.11 Molybdenite: MoS2......Page 1484
16.12 Arsenopyrite: FeAsS......Page 1487
16.13 Bauxite: a Mixture of Diaspore, Gibbsite, and Boehmite......Page 1490
16.14 Fluorite: CaF2......Page 1492
16.15 Barite: BaSO4......Page 1495
16.16 Spodumene: LiAlSi2O6......Page 1498
16.17 Lepidolite: K(Li,Al)2−3(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2......Page 1501
16.18 Several Gem Minerals......Page 1503
Ruby and Sapphire (Gem Varieties of Corundum, Al2O3)......Page 1504
Topaz......Page 1506
Tourmaline......Page 1507
Emerald, Heliodor, and Aquamarine (Gem Varieties of Beryl, Be3Al2Si6O18)......Page 1508
Opal......Page 1512
Jade......Page 1513
Turquoise......Page 1514
Summary......Page 1515
Review Questions......Page 1519
Further Reading......Page 1521
Chapter 17 Some Selected Earth Materials Resources......Page 1522
17.1 Construction Materials......Page 1528
17.1.1 Building Stones......Page 1530
17.1.2 Bricks, Cement, and Concrete......Page 1535
17.1.3 Crushed Stone, Sand, and Gravel......Page 1537
17.2 Iron Ore......Page 1540
17.3 Clay Minerals......Page 1543
17.4 Copper Ore......Page 1547
17.5 Lithium Ore......Page 1552
17.6 Rare Earth Elements (REEs)......Page 1555
17.7 Zeolites......Page 1557
17.8 Energy Resources......Page 1560
17.8.1 Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal Reserves......Page 1561
17.8.2 Shale Gas and Hydraulic Fracturing......Page 1565
17.8.3 Nuclear Energy......Page 1575
17.8.4 Geothermal Energy......Page 1577
Summary......Page 1580
Review Questions......Page 1584
Online Resources......Page 1587
Further Reading......Page 1588
Chapter 18 Earth Materials and Human Health......Page 1590
18.1 The Human Body’s Need for Earth Materials......Page 1594
18.2 Soils and Human Health......Page 1597
Volcanic Soils......Page 1598
Glacial Soil......Page 1599
Wind-blown Soil (Loess)......Page 1600
18.2.2 Increasing Crop Production from Agricultural Land, and Soil Depletion......Page 1601
18.2.3 The Need for Fertilizers......Page 1605
18.3 Carcinogenic and Chemical Hazards Posed by Earth Materials......Page 1609
18.3.1 Erionite......Page 1610
18.3.2 Asbestos Minerals......Page 1612
18.3.3 Silica Minerals......Page 1618
Arsenic in the General Environment......Page 1620
Arsenic in Groundwater in Southeast Asia......Page 1622
Radon Gas......Page 1624
Radioactive Waste Disposal from Nuclear Power Plants......Page 1625
18.3.6 Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change......Page 1628
18.4 Hazards from Volcanic Eruptions......Page 1630
18.4.1 Monitoring Active Volcanoes......Page 1635
18.4.2 Lahars......Page 1640
18.5 Tsunamis......Page 1641
18.6 Ejecta from Meteorite Impacts......Page 1644
Summary......Page 1647
Review Questions......Page 1652
Online Resources......Page 1654
USGS health and environment......Page 1655
Arsenic......Page 1656
Acid mine drainage......Page 1657
Carbon dioxide......Page 1658
Further Reading......Page 1659
Glossary......Page 1662
Minerals and Varieties......Page 1806
Common Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks......Page 1815
Common Units of Measure......Page 1821
Other Quantitative Terms......Page 1824
Index......Page 1825
Plates......Page 1921