Earth Lab: Exploring the Earth Sciences

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Introduction to Plates and the Theory of Plate Tectonics......Page 12
Types of Plate Boundaries......Page 14
Rock Cycle......Page 17
Types of Maps......Page 18
Map Legend......Page 19
Scale......Page 22
Global Location System: Latitude and Longitude......Page 24
Map Grids and Orientation......Page 26
Crystal Habit......Page 30
Luster......Page 32
Streak......Page 33
Broken Surfaces of Minerals......Page 34
Distinguishing Cleavage from Crystal Faces......Page 35
Mineral Identification......Page 36
Strategy for Mineral Identification......Page 37
Classification of Minerals......Page 40
Silicate Minerals......Page 48
Scavenger Hunt......Page 52
Scarcity versus Abundance of Mineral Resources......Page 53
Mining of Minerals and the Environment......Page 55
Mineralogical and Chemical Composition of Igneous Rocks......Page 56
Igneous Textures Reveal How Igneous Rocks Form......Page 58
Textures of Plutonic Rocks......Page 59
Growth of Crystals from a Melt......Page 60
Textures of Volcanic Rocks......Page 62
Classification and Identification of Igneous Rocks......Page 63
Plutonic Igneous Rocks......Page 64
Volcanic Igneous Rocks......Page 66
Igneous Rock Identification......Page 67
Extrusive Rock Masses......Page 68
Intrusive Rock Masses......Page 75
Hydrothermal Veins......Page 78
Types of Sediment......Page 82
Sedimentary Analysis......Page 85
Fossils......Page 87
Coarse-Grained Clastic Rocks......Page 88
Medium-Grained Clastic Rocks (Sandstones)......Page 89
Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks......Page 90
Carbonates......Page 91
Fossil Fuels......Page 92
Evaporites......Page 94
Chert......Page 95
Structures of Sedimentary Rocks......Page 96
Identification and Description of Sedimentary Rocks......Page 100
Metamorphic Processes and Types of Metamorphism......Page 106
Common Minerals of Metamorphic Rocks......Page 108
Foliation Textures......Page 111
Foliated Rocks......Page 112
Nonfoliated Rocks......Page 116
\"Meta-\" Rocks......Page 119
Minerals Reveal Metamorphic Temperature......Page 120
Grain Size and Metamorphic Temperature (Grade)......Page 122
Identification and Description of Metamorphic Rocks......Page 123
Metamorphic Zones Mapping Exercise......Page 128
Topography and Contours......Page 130
Rules of Contours......Page 131
Raised and Shaded Relief Maps......Page 132
Elevations of Contours on a Topographic Map......Page 133
Making a Topographic Map of a Model......Page 134
Topographic Profiles......Page 135
Constructing a Topographic Map from Elevation Information......Page 138
Scale of U.S. Geological Survey Maps......Page 140
Exercise Using a USGS Topographic Map......Page 141
Using a Stereoscope with Pairs of Images on the Same Page......Page 144
Using the Stereoscope with Pairs of Separate Images......Page 147
LAB 7 Geologic Time and Geologic History......Page 148
Stratigraphic Laws......Page 149
Unconformities......Page 151
Exercises in Relative Dating......Page 153
Fossils and Relative Dating......Page 155
Geologic History......Page 158
Isotopic Dating......Page 160
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks and Isotopic Dating......Page 165
Indirect Dating......Page 166
Geologic Time Scale......Page 167
Geologic Time and Life Forms Exercise......Page 168
Measuring the Orientation of Planes......Page 171
What Is Shown on a Geologic Map......Page 172
Folded Layers: Anticlines and Synclines......Page 175
Faults......Page 180
Contacts on Geologic Maps......Page 181
Igneous Contacts on Geologic Maps......Page 183
Geologic Map Exercises......Page 184
Folds on Aerial Photos......Page 189
Interpreting Geologic History from Geologic Maps and Cross Sections......Page 193
Drawing a Cross Section......Page 199
Making Geologic Maps from Field Investigations......Page 200
Mapmaking Simulation......Page 201
Divergent Plate Boundaries......Page 203
Transform Faults......Page 212
Convergence, Subduction, and Mountain Building......Page 215
Wandering Continents......Page 221
Paleomagnetism......Page 222
Continental Drift......Page 225
Earthquake Hazards......Page 226
Earthquake Hazard Experiment......Page 231
Intensity......Page 234
Tsunamis......Page 236
The Origin of Earthquakes......Page 239
Seismic Gaps......Page 240
Seismic Waves......Page 243
Magnitude......Page 244
Locating an Earthquake......Page 245
Distance to the Earthquake......Page 246
Locating the Earthquake from Three Seismographs......Page 248
Time of the Earthquake......Page 249
Mass Wasting Is Hazardous......Page 250
Angle of Repose Experiments......Page 251
Angles and Forces......Page 253
The Influence of Water......Page 254
Slides......Page 256
Flows......Page 259
Mass Wasting in Sand Experiment......Page 261
Identifying Types of Mass Wasting......Page 262
LAB 12 Streams and Rivers......Page 274
Stream Gradient and Sinuosity......Page 275
Gradient versus Sinuosity......Page 279
Stream Erosion and Its Stages......Page 281
Downcutting......Page 283
Lateral Erosion and Meandering Streams......Page 287
Rejuvenated Downward Erosion......Page 293
Practice Recognizing Stages in Stream Erosion and Rejuvenation......Page 295
Flooding......Page 296
Graphing Stream Discharge and Calculating Recurrence......Page 297
LAB 13 Groundwater and Karst Topography......Page 300
Porosity......Page 301
Experimental Determination of Flow Rate in Sediment......Page 302
Water Table, Groundwater Flow, and Wells......Page 305
A Groundwater Model......Page 306
Groundwater Depletion......Page 309
Using Water-Table Contours......Page 311
Groundwater Causes Erosion by Solution......Page 314
Dissolution Experiment......Page 315
Karst Topography......Page 316
The Edge of the Oceans......Page 324
Ocean Margin Profiles......Page 326
Longshore Drift......Page 327
Barrier Islands......Page 329
Beach Erosion Control......Page 332
Headland Erosion......Page 334
Submergent versus Emergent Coastlines......Page 336
Ocean Currents......Page 337
Ocean Salinity and Deep Ocean Currents......Page 342
Deep Ocean-Current Experiment......Page 343
Thermohaline Circulation......Page 344
The Earth–Sun Relationship......Page 346
Coriolis Effect Experiment......Page 348
Air Pressure and Global Winds......Page 349
Climate Types and Climographs......Page 352
Milankovitch Cycles......Page 354
Incoming and Outgoing Radiation......Page 358
Albedo......Page 359
Greenhouse Effect......Page 361
Increasing Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere......Page 364
Changes in Climate......Page 367
Ozone Layer......Page 368
Formation of the Ozone Layer......Page 369
Artificial Ozone Layer Depletion......Page 370
Conditions of the Air......Page 374
Humidity......Page 375
Measuring the Dew Point......Page 376
Determining the Dew Point from Temperature and Relative Humidity......Page 378
Clouds......Page 380
Weather Fronts......Page 384
Weather Maps......Page 386
El Niño—La Niña......Page 392
El Niño/La Niña Experiment......Page 394
El Niño—La Niña Temperature Maps......Page 396
Weather, El Niño, and La Niña......Page 398
Glacier Types and Their Movement......Page 402
Continental Glaciers......Page 403
Landforms Resulting from Glaciation......Page 407
Landforms Resulting from Alpine Glaciation......Page 409
Exercises Involving Glacial Erosion and Deposition......Page 410
Climate Change and Glaciers......Page 423
LAB 18 Deserts and Arid Landscapes......Page 426
Types of Deserts......Page 427
Wind Transport and Erosion......Page 430
Erosional Desert Landforms......Page 431
Dunes......Page 435
Stream Deposits in Deserts......Page 440
Combined Landscapes......Page 442
African Sahel......Page 447
Aral Sea......Page 450
Scientific Methods......Page 454
Apply the Scientific Method to Your Own Life......Page 456
GLOSSARY......Page 457