Drinking Water Disinfection By-products: Sources, Fate and Remediation

Preface
Contents
Water Disinfection: Background, Current Trends, Challenges, and Gaps
	1 Introduction
	2 Historical Background of Water Disinfection
	3 Advancements in Water Disinfection
	4 Challenges and Opportunities in Water Disinfection
	5 Conclusion
	References
Drinking Water Chlorination and Disinfection by-Products: Formation, History, and Regulations
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Chlorine: The Disinfectant of Choice
			1.1.1 Advantages of Using Chlorine
			1.1.2 Disadvantages of Using Chlorine
		1.2 Microbiological Drinking Water Quality and Human Health
		1.3 Disinfection by-products: A Challenge
		1.4 Disinfection By-Products Chemistry
		1.5 Disinfection By-Products History and Regulation
	2 Conclusion
	References
Recent Advancements in Chlorine Applications for Water Quality Control
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Disinfection
		1.2 Chlorination
		1.3 Residual Chlorine and Chlorine Demand
	2 Chlorine as a Water Disinfectant
		2.1 Dosage of Chlorine
		2.2 Forms of Chlorine Applications
	3 Kinetics of Disinfection
		3.1 The Creatures That Will Be Eliminated
		3.2 The Disinfectant’s Composition
		3.3 The Disinfectant Concentration
		3.4 Contact Period
		3.5 Temperature
		3.6 Other Considerations
		3.7 Effectiveness of Chlorine
		3.8 Acquiescence with Chlorination
	4 Challenges with Chlorination
	5 Disinfection By-Products
		5.1 Trihalomethanes
		5.2 Bromoform (CHBr3)
		5.3 Bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl3)
		5.4 Dibromochloromethane (CHBr2Cl)
		5.5 Chloroform (CHCl3)
		5.6 Halo-acetic Acid
		5.7 Dichloroacetic Acid (Cl2CHCOOH)
		5.8 Trichloroacetic Acid (Cl3CCOOH)
		5.9 Other Chlorination by-Products
	6 Rating Guidelines for Disinfection by-Products
	7 Toxicological Measures
	8 Methods for Removing Disinfection By-Products
	9 Conclusion
	References
A Comparative Study of Different Disinfection Processes, and Management Practices to Control the Formation of Disinfection by-Products (DBPs)
	1 Introduction
	2 Methods of Disinfection
		2.1 Chlorine Gas
			2.1.1 Process of Disinfection
			2.1.2 Disinfection by-Products
			2.1.3 Advantages
			2.1.4 Disadvantages
		2.2 Chlorination (Sodium Hypochlorite Solution)
			2.2.1 Process of Disinfection
			2.2.2 Disinfection by-Products
			2.2.3 Advantages
			2.2.4 Disadvantages
		2.3 Chlorination (Solid Calcium Hypochlorite)
			2.3.1 Process of Disinfection
			2.3.2 Disinfection by-Products
			2.3.3 Advantages
			2.3.4 Disadvantages
		2.4 Chloramines
			2.4.1 Process of Disinfection
			2.4.2 Disinfection by-Products
			2.4.3 Advantages
			2.4.4 Disadvantages
		2.5 Ozonation
			2.5.1 Process of Disinfection
			2.5.2 Disinfection by-Products
			2.5.3 Advantages
			2.5.4 Disadvantages
		2.6 Ultraviolet Light
			2.6.1 Process of Disinfection
			2.6.2 Disinfection by-Products
			2.6.3 Advantages
			2.6.4 Disadvantages
		2.7 Photocatalytic Disinfection
			2.7.1 Process of Disinfection
			2.7.2 Disinfection by-Products
			2.7.3 Advantages
			2.7.4 Disadvantages
	3 Factors Influencing the Formation of DBPs During Various Water Disinfection Processes
	4 Management Practices for Controlling DBPs
	5 Conclusions
	References
Various Disinfection Processes and Formation of Disinfection by-Products in Drinking Water
	1 Introduction
	2 Chlorination
	3 Ozonation
	4 Thermal Disinfection
	5 UV Radiation
	6 Disinfection by-Products Formation in Drinking Water
		6.1 Halogenated Disinfection by-Products
		6.2 Trihalomethanes
		6.3 Halobenzoquinones
		6.4 Haloketones
		6.5 Haloacetic Acids
		6.6 Nitrosamines
	7 Conclusion
	References
Disinfection by-Products (DBPs) and their Toxicological Risk on Human Wellbeing: A Public Health Concern
	1 Introduction
	2 What Are DBPs?
	3 How Are DBPs Generated?
	4 Disinfectants Used to Treat Water
		4.1 Ozone
		4.2 Ultraviolet Radiation
		4.3 Chlorine
		4.4 Peracetic Acid
		4.5 Chloramine
	5 Types of DBPs
		5.1 Trihalomethanes (THMs)
		5.2 Haloacetic Acid (HAAs)
		5.3 Haloketones (HKs)
		5.4 Haloacetonitriles (HANs)
	6 Formation of Disinfection by-Product
		6.1 Trihalomethanes (THMs)
		6.2 Haloacetic Acid (HAAs)
		6.3 Haloacetonitriles (HANs)
		6.4 Bromide
	7 Impact of DBPs on Human Health
		7.1 Cancer
		7.2 Reproductive Disease
		7.3 Cardiovascular Diseases
		7.4 Skin Lesion
		7.5 Neurological Disorders
	8 Conclusion
	References
Route of Exposure, Mechanism of Action, and Toxicological and Human Health Impacts of Disinfection By-Products
	1 Introduction
	2 Synthesis of Disinfectant Derivatives
		2.1 Circumstances that Cause Disinfection
	3 Mechanism of Action of Disinfection By-products
	4 Water DBPs: What Affects Their Makeup and Levels
		4.1 The Quality of the Source Water
	5 The Treatment Process
	6 During Distribution
		6.1 Distribution System Spatial Variation
		6.2 Temporal and Seasonal Variation in DBP Amounts
	7 Natural Events
	8 Routes of Exposure to DBPs
		8.1 Ingestion
		8.2 Absorption Via the Skin and the Lungs
	9 Health and Toxicological Impact of By-Products
		9.1 Cancer-Inducing By-Products
		9.2 Reproductive Impact of By-products
			9.2.1 Fertility
			9.2.2 Fetal Loss
			9.2.3 Fetal Growth
			9.2.4 Congenital Malformations
			9.2.5 Toxicological Evidence
	10 Treatment of DBPs
	11 Conclusion
	References
Detection and Measurement of Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water
	1 Introduction
	2 Types of Disinfectants
		2.1 Chlorination
		2.2 Ultraviolet Disinfection
		2.3 Ozonolysis
		2.4 Chloramination
	3 Disinfectant By-Products
	4 Detection and Estimation of DBPs
	5 Conclusion
	References
Recent Trends in Controlling the Disinfection By-Products Before their Formation in Drinking Water: A Review
	1 Introduction
	2 Disinfection By-Products (DBPs)
	3 Parameters that Influence the Formation of DBPs in Water
		3.1 Temperature
		3.2 pH
		3.3 Contact Time
		3.4 Disinfectant Dosage
		3.5 Effect of Retention Time in Disinfection Tank
		3.6 Effect of Pipes Used in Disinfection Tank
	4 Pre-Treatment Techniques to Prevent DBPs Formation
		4.1 Coagulation-Flocculation
		4.2 Ozonation
		4.3 Ion Exchange
	5 Removing Precursors of DBPs
		5.1 Natural Organic Matter (NOMs)
		5.2 Activated Carbon (AC) Adsorption
		5.3 Iron Oxide-Based Adsorption
		5.4 Oxidation Processes
		5.5 Photocatalysis
		5.6 Ballasted Flocculation (BSF)
		5.7 Membrane Filtration
		5.8 Membrane-Specific Flux Characterisation
		5.9 Magnetic Ion Exchange (MIEX)
		5.10 Adsorption
	6 Conclusions
	References
Removal of Disinfection By-Products by Physico-Chemical Treatment Methods
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Physical Methods for Disinfection
		1.2 Chemical Methods for Disinfection
	2 Methods of Prevention for DBPs
	3 Methods for Removing DBPs from Treated Water
		3.1 Removal of DBPs Using Membrane Filtration
			3.1.1 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration
			3.1.2 Nanofiltration
			3.1.3 Reverse Osmosis
			3.1.4 Ceramic Membranes
		3.2 Removal of DBPs Using Air Stripping
			3.2.1 Packed Column Air Strippers
			3.2.2 Sieve-Tray Air Strippers
			3.2.3 Diffused-Aeration Tanks for Air Stripping
		3.3 Removal of DBPs Using Tank Mixing and Spray Aeration
		3.4 Removal of DBPs Using Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)
		3.5 Removal of DBPs Using Heating/Boiling
		3.6 Removal of DBPs Using Adsorption
		3.7 Removal of DBPs Using Sand Filters
			3.7.1 Slow Sand Filters
			3.7.2 Rapid Sand Filters
	4 Conclusion
	References
Removal of Disinfection By-Products from Drinking Water: Influencing Factors and Physico-Chemical Treatment Processes
	1 Introduction
	2 Factors Influencing the Formation of Disinfection by-Products
		2.1 Temperature
		2.2 pH
		2.3 Organic Matter in Water
		2.4 Effect of Free Residual Chlorine and Chlorine Dosage
		2.5 Contact Time
	3 Removal Processes for Disinfection By-Products
	4 Best Available Techniques for Removal of Disinfection By-Products
		4.1 Enhanced Coagulation
			4.1.1 Factors Affecting the Enhanced Coagulation
				4.1.1.1 pH Preadjustment
				4.1.1.2 Coagulants
		4.2 Adsorption Through Activated Carbon
			4.2.1 Factors Affecting the Adsorption Through Activated Carbon
	5 Conclusion
	References
Availability and Minimization of Nitrogenous Disinfectant By-Products in Drinking Water
	1 Introduction
	2 Types of Nitrogenous By-Products
	3 Availability of Nitrogenous By-Products in Drinking Water
		3.1 Haloacetonitriles (HANs)
		3.2 Haloacetamides (HAcAms)
		3.3 Cyanogen Halides (CNX)
		3.4 Halonitromethanes (HNMs)
		3.5 Other N-DBPs
	4 Mechanism of Formation N-DBPs in Drinking Water
		4.1 Effect of pH
		4.2 Effect of Temperature
		4.3 Effect of Bromide
		4.4 Effect of Chloramination
	5 Detection of Nitrogenous By-Products
		5.1 Analytical Treatment for N-DBPs
		5.2 Analytical Method for HNMs
		5.3 Analytical Method of HANs and HAcAms
		5.4 Analytical Method for Other Emerging N-DBPs
	6 Methods of Minimization of N-DBPs in Drinking Water
	7 Conclusions
	References
GIS-Based Trends Analysis of THMs Compounds in Indian Drinking Water Supplies
	1 Introduction
	2 Material and Methods
		2.1 Site Description and Water Sampling
		2.2 Analytical Method and Software Used
	3 Results & Discussion
		3.1 Spatial Distribution of THMs in all Five WTPs
			3.1.1 Spatial Distribution of CF
			3.1.2 Spatial Distribution of BDCM
			3.1.3 Spatial Distribution of DBCM
		3.2 Comparative of Magnitudes THMs Species
	4 Conclusions
	References
Recent Development in Nanotechnology for the Removal of Disinfection By-Products
	1 Introduction
	2 Disinfectant By-Products
	3 Types of Nanotechnology Used in the Wastewater Treatment Process
		3.1 Photocatalysis
			3.1.1 Metal Deposition
			3.1.2 Doping of Ion
			3.1.3 Dye Sensitization
		3.2 Nanofiltration
			3.2.1 Carbon Nanomaterials
			3.2.2 Metal Oxides
			3.2.3 Zeolites
		3.3 Nano Sorbents
			3.3.1 Carbon Nano Sorbents
			3.3.2 Bio Sorbents
			3.3.3 Metal Oxide
			3.3.4 Zeolites
			3.3.5 Nano Zero Valent Iron (NZVI)
	4 Toxicity of Disinfectant By-Product
	5 Nanotechnology for the Removal of DBP
	6 Future Scope
	7 Conclusion
	References