Disinformation Debunked (Routledge Research in Media Literacy and Education)

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of figures
List of tables
List of contributors
Introduction
	0.1 Introduction
	0.2 MIL theories in tension: Shifting paradigms between protection and participation
	0.3 The social turn and its disinformation disorders
	0.4 Transliteracy and new challenges: Socialisation by design (and by law)
	0.5 Innovative research developments and methodologies
	0.6 Implementing transliteracy to fight disinformation: Structure of this book
	Note
	References
Section I: Fighting disinformation from a theoretical perspective: Designing projects YouCheck! and YouVerify!
	Chapter 1: The state-of-the-art in combating mis- and disinformation: Lessons from pre- and debunking approaches
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 The effects of mis- and disinformation
		1.3 State-of-the-art in debunking techniques
		1.4 State-of-the-art in pre-bunking techniques
		1.5 Suggestions for effective applications of remedies
			1.5.1 Use channels, sources and formats to overcome avoidance and resistance
			1.5.2 Consolidate trust and motivate critical (but not cynical) media skills
			1.5.3 Experiment with modalities, formats and tailoring
			1.5.4 An integrated approach towards resilient societies
		1.6 What’s next? A forward-looking perspective on corrective information
		1.7 Conclusion
		Note
		References
	Chapter 2: The political economy of fact-checking: From hope to reality check
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Critical political economy: A theoretical framework
			2.2.1 Democracy and the free press
			2.2.2 Commercialisation of information
			2.2.3 Digital commodification
		2.3 Historical origins of fact-checking
			2.3.1 Rise and fall of objectivity
			2.3.2 Early internet debunking
			2.3.3 Political fact-checking as journalistic reform
			2.3.4 Fact-checking goes global
		2.4 Mapping complex power relations with European fact-checking
			2.4.1 IFCN and platform partnerships
				2.4.1.1 International fact-checking network
				2.4.1.2 Platforms
		2.5 Europe’s swift ascent: From latecomer to trailblazer
			2.5.1 The European Fact-Checking Standards Network
			2.5.2 The European Union
			2.5.3 The European Digital Media Observatory
			2.5.4 Agence France-Presse
		2.6 Further limitations in polarised environments
			2.6.1 Media trust and relations
			2.6.2 Epistemological problems in polarised countries
		2.7 Conclusion
		Notes
		References
	Chapter 3: MIL theories and the fight against disinformation in practice: Projects YouCheck! and YouVerify!
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 MIL in practice: YouCheck! as a pilot project (2019–2020)
			3.2.1 Rationale and assumptions
			3.2.2 Inputs, objectives and activities
			3.2.3 Outputs, outcomes and expected impact
			3.2.4 Main results and lessons learnt
				3.2.4.1 Main results
					3.2.4.1.1 Results of school interventions
					3.2.4.1.2 Results of beta testers and focus groups
					3.2.4.1.3 Results of gamification and two media campaigns
				3.2.4.2 Lessons learnt
		3.3 MIL theories in practice: Scaling up YouVerify! (2021–2022)
			3.3.1 Rationale and assumptions
			3.3.2 Inputs, objectives and activities
			3.3.3 Outputs, outcomes and expected impact
			3.3.4 Main results and lessons learnt
				3.3.4.1 Main results
					3.3.4.1.1 Results of MOOC iterations
					3.3.4.1.2 Results of serious game
					3.3.4.1.3 Results for policy recommendations
				3.3.4.2 Lessons learnt
		3.4 Conclusion
		References
Section II: Fighting disinformation from a practical perspective: Results of projects YouCheck! and YouVerify!
	Chapter 4: Using tools to fight disinformation in and outside the classrooms: Evidence from four countries
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Mis- and disinformation: A technological and educational approach
		4.3 Visual disinformation
		4.4 Tools to fight disinformation
		4.5 Evaluation of tools
		4.6 Methodology
		4.7 Findings
			4.7.1 Results for Study 1 and Study 3
			4.7.2 Results for Study 2
		4.8 Discussion
		4.9 Conclusion
		Notes
		References
	Chapter 5: Scaling up the fight against disinformation: The MOOC “Disinformation Step by Step” in project YouVerify!
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 The scaling-up appeal of MOOCs for MIL
			5.2.1 MOOCs as amplifiers and replicating devices
			5.2.2 Fighting disinformation as a democratic emergency
			5.2.3 Media and information literacy as a complex strategy to fight disinformation
		5.3 Methodology
			5.3.1 A qualitative-quantitative approach
			5.3.2 MOOC design
			5.3.3 Corpus
		5.4 Results
			5.4.1 General results
			5.4.2 On the MOOC experience (organisation; time management; facilitation, goal achievement, continuation)
			5.4.3 On the learning experience about disinformation (mechanisms, verification, and refutation)
			5.4.4 On the felt effects of disinformation (open-ended responses)
				5.4.4.1 Iteration 1 (selection of verbatims)
					5.4.4.1.1 At collective level
					5.4.4.1.2 At individual level
				5.4.4.2 Iteration 2 (selection of verbatims)
					5.4.4.2.1 At collective level
					5.4.4.2.2 At individual level
			5.4.5 On MIL (critical thinking competence, MIL holistic approach, project building)
			5.4.6 On the solutions to combat disinformation (open-ended responses)
				5.4.6.1 Iteration 1 (selection of verbatims)
					5.4.6.1.1 On MIL
					5.4.6.1.2 On public awareness campaigns
					5.4.6.1.3 On fact-checking
					5.4.6.1.4 On legislation
				5.4.6.2 Iteration 2 (selection of verbatims)
					5.4.6.2.1 On MIL
					5.4.6.2.2 On awareness campaigns
					5.4.6.2.3 On fact-checking
		5.5 On legislative measures
		5.6 Discussion
			5.6.1 Implications for MOOC experience and design
			5.6.2 Implications for fight against disinformation
			5.6.3 Implications for MIL and its effectiveness
		5.7 Conclusion
		Note
		References
	Chapter 6: The role of facilitation to foster participation and ensure knowledge transfer in media and information literacy: The case of the MOOC “Disinformation Step by Step”
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 State of the art
		6.3 Research questions
		6.4 Methodology
			6.4.1 A systemic approach
			6.4.2 Action research
			6.4.3 “Disinformation Step by Step” MOOC case study and corpus
			6.4.4 Observing interactions
		6.5 Results
			6.5.1 Techno-pedagogical facilitation choices
			6.5.2 Organised facilitation with coordinated actors and supporting artefacts
				6.5.2.1 Actors and their roles
				6.5.2.2 Organisation and artefacts
				6.5.2.3 Collectives and cultures
			6.5.3 The various methodologies used to develop the MOOC
		6.6 Discussion
			6.6.1 To meet individual requirements and multiple intercultural specificities, the facilitation team developed responses adapted to each culture (RQ1)
			6.6.2 Developing specific artefacts and organisational tools made it possible to develop specific facilitation practices which were key success factors of engagement (RQ2)
			6.6.3 Transfer was ensured by specific, massive, and intercultural facilitation artefacts and mediation practices (RQ3)
		6.7 Conclusion
		Notes
		References
	Chapter 7: Fighting against disinformation: Measuring effects in Spain
		Introduction
		7.1 Literature review
			7.1.1 The most problematic impacts of disinformation
			7.1.2 Actors and variables responsible for disinformation
			7.1.3 Fighting disinformation
		7.2 Methodology and corpus
			7.2.1 Methodology and objectives
			7.2.2 Data collection design and analysis
			7.2.3 Sample
		7.3 Results
			7.3.1 Most problematic effects of disinformation
				7.3.1.1 Policy leaders
				7.3.1.2 Experts in education
				7.3.1.3 Journalists
			7.3.2 Key actors to implement measures against disinformation
				7.3.2.1 Policy leaders
				7.3.2.2 Experts in education
				7.3.2.3 Journalists
			7.3.3 Key measures to combat disinformation: The role of education
				7.3.3.1 Policy leaders
				7.3.3.2 Experts in education
				7.3.3.3 Journalists
			7.3.4 MOOCs as a tool against disinformation
		7.4 Discussion
		7.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: 21st-century skills: Enforcing resilience and critical thinking against visual disinformation through serious games
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 A game’s serious responsibility: Why do we need fake news games and how do they work?
		8.3 Methodology
			8.3.1 “BotBusters”: General description
			8.3.2 Learning context
			8.3.3 Learning objectives
			8.3.4 Game context
			8.3.5 The InVID-WeVerify plugin
			8.3.6 Game classification
			8.3.7 BotBusters
		8.4 Results and discussion
			8.4.1 Analysis: Learning mechanics and game mechanics
		8.5 Limitations and future studies
		8.6 Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		Notes
		References
Section III: Fighting disinformation from a policy making perspective: Solutions from projects YouCheck! and YouVerify!
	Chapter 9: Fighting disinformation: Evidence for policy making
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Literature review
			9.2.1 Defining “fake news”
			9.2.2 Effects of fake news
			9.2.3 Fighting fake news
		9.3 Methodology
		9.4 Findings
			9.4.1 Perceptions about and definitions of “fake news”
			9.4.2 Perceived prevalence and possible effects of fake news in online media
			9.4.3 Measures to address the fake news phenomenon
			9.4.4 Cross-country perspectives and variability
		9.5 Discussion
		9.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Public policies to fight disinformation actively through media and information literacy
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Literature review
			10.2.1 Key concepts
			10.2.2 Effects of disinformation
			10.2.3 Solutions for countering disinformation
		10.3 Methodology
		10.4 Findings
			10.4.1 Effects of disinformation
				10.4.1.1 Policymakers
				10.4.1.2 Experts in MIL/media studies/disinformation research
				10.4.1.3 Journalists
			10.4.2 Measures to fight disinformation
				10.4.2.1 Policymakers
				10.4.2.2 Experts in MIL/media studies/disinformation research
				10.4.2.3 Journalists
			10.4.3 Future solutions
				10.4.3.1 Policymakers
				10.4.3.2 Experts in MIL/media studies/disinformation research
				10.4.3.3 Journalists
		10.5 Discussion
			10.5.1 Current understandings of disinformation and its effects
			10.5.2 Assessment of current measures
			10.5.3 Future solutions: A whole-of-society approach in countering disinformation
		10.6 Conclusion
		Appendix 10.1 Templates for the interviews
			Interview guide for policymakers
				Introduction
				Effects of disinformation
				Measures to fight disinformation
				Future solutions against disinformation
				CLOSURE
			Interview guides for experts
				Introduction
				Measures to fight disinformation
				Future solutions against disinformation
				CLOSURE
			Interview guides for journalists
				Introduction
				Measures to fight disinformation
				Future solutions against disinformation
				CLOSURE
		Appendix 10.2 Description of the interviewees (codes, gender, institution)
		Note
		References
Conclusions: Research on MIL, fact-checking, and disinformation debunked: MIL checkmates fake news
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Confirming theory of change and research design
	11.3 Aiming at transferable sense-making practices
	11.4 Validating MIL strategies and solutions
		11.4.1 Lifelong and long-distance learning
		11.4.2 MIL design
		11.4.3 Policy takeovers
		11.4.4 Future research on disinformation is inextricably related to MIL
	11.5 Recommendations for policymaking in fighting disinformation
		11.5.1 MIL education
		11.5.2 Fact-checking
		11.5.3 Quality journalism and media awareness campaigns
		11.5.4 Social media regulation
	Note
	References
Index