Disaster Management and City Planning: Lessons of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake

Preface
Preface for English Edition
Introduction: Issues Concerning Disaster Administration and City Planning
	The Aims of the Book
		The Model Disaster-Resistant City and the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
		Progress in Urbanization and Disaster Management
		The Antinomy Between Disaster Management and Disaster-Resistant City Planning
		Risk Management in Disaster Administration
	Categories of Disaster Management: The Initial Response, Temporary Facilities, and Reconstruction Plans
		Books on Disaster-Resistant City Planning
		Disaster Administrative Activities
		Discussions on Disaster Administrative Activities
		Problems Concerning Evacuation Shelters and Temporary Housing
		Problems Concerning Reconstruction Plans
		Emergency Disaster Management Activities
		Aims
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1: The Initial Response Systems Used for Major Earthquakes and Disaster-Resistant City Planning
	1 The History of Disaster Management
		1.1 The Enactment of the Basic Act on Disaster Management
			1.1.1 Recommendations Made by the Science Council of Japan
			1.1.2 Proposals by the Hokkaido Government Regarding the Improvement of Management Measures for Major Disasters
			1.1.3 Recommendations Made by the National Governors´ Association
			1.1.4 Typhoon Ise-Wan Which Facilitated the Enactment of the Basic Act on Disaster Management
			1.1.5 The Significance of the Basic Act on Disaster Management
		1.2 A Framework for Disaster Administrative Activities (Disaster Management Plans)
			1.2.1 The Basic Disaster Management Plan
			1.2.2 Disaster Management Operation Plans
				The Disaster Management Operation Plan of the National Land Agency
				The Disaster Management Operation Plan of the National Public Safety Commission and the National Police Agency
				The Disaster Management Operation Plan of the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Fire and Disaster Management Agency
				The Disaster Management Operation Plan of the Defense Agency
				Relief Operations to Be Conducted After the Dispatch of Self-Defense Force Units, etc. for Disaster Relief Operations
			1.2.3 Local Disaster Management Plans
				The Hyogo Prefectural Disaster Management Plan
				The Kobe City Disaster Management Plan
		1.3 A Framework for Disaster Administrative Activities (Disaster Management Organizations)
			1.3.1 The Central Disaster Management Council and Local Disaster Management Councils
			1.3.2 The Major Disaster Management Headquarters
			1.3.3 The Extreme Disaster Management Headquarters
			1.3.4 The Disaster Management Headquarters
			1.3.5 Emergency Personnel Assembly Systems
		1.4 A Framework for Disaster Administrative Activities (Information Gathering and Communication Systems)
			1.4.1 Information Communications Systems: The Central Disaster Management Radio Communications System
	2 The Initial Response Systems
		2.1 The National-Level Initial Response Systems
		2.2 The Local-Level Initial Response Systems
	3 Issues Concerning an Initial Response System
		3.1 Understanding What Happened
			3.1.1 Major Disaster Management Headquarters
				When It Was Established
				Relations with Extreme Disaster Management Headquarters
				Establishment of the Emergency Headquarters for the Hyogoken-Nambu Earthquake
				Establishment of On-Site Headquarters for Disaster Management
				Summary
			3.1.2 Grasping Casualties and Missing
			3.1.3 Estimated Time of Deaths
		3.2 Issues Requiring a Major System Overhaul
			3.2.1 Enhancement of Cabinet Functions
			3.2.2 Immediate Collection of Information from Various Angles and Centralized Information Management System
			3.2.3 Securing Swift Implementation of Activities
			3.2.4 Establishment of Wide-Area Support Systems
	4 The Fundamental Improvement of Initial Response Systems: Improvements Using Administrative Technical Methods
		4.1 Strengthening the Cabinet´s Function
		4.2 Immediate and Multilateral Information Gathering and Concentration of Information
		4.3 Ensuring of Prompt Actions
		4.4 Regional Centralization System
		4.5 Revision of the Planning Theory
			4.5.1 Basic Disaster Management Plan
			4.5.2 Emergency Action Plan
			4.5.3 Revision of the Emergency Action Plan of the Ministry of Home Affairs (now Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communicatio...
			4.5.4 Revision of the Emergency Action Plan of the Defense Agency (Now the Ministry of Defense)
		4.6 Revision of Local Disaster Management Plans
			4.6.1 Hyogo Prefecture Disaster Management Plan
				Kobe City Disaster Management Plan
		4.7 Improvement in Organizational Theory
			4.7.1 Establishment of Extreme Disaster Management Headquarters
			4.7.2 Granting the Authority to Chief of the Extreme Disaster Management Headquarters to Give Directions
			4.7.3 Assembly of the Designated Emergency Response Team
			4.7.4 Extreme Disaster Response Team (Full-Readiness System at the Prime Minister´s Office)
			4.7.5 Cabinet Office Crisis Management Team
			4.7.6 Initial Action by the Cabinet in the Event of a Large-Scale Tokyo Inland Earthquake
				Deputy Acting on Behalf of the Prime Minister
				Place of Assembly
				Assembly Method, etc.
				Information Communication Method
				Holding Cabinet Meeting
			4.7.7 Lodging for the Designated Emergency Response Team
		4.8 Improvements in the Information Collection and Communication System
			4.8.1 Earthquake Information Flash Report System
			4.8.2 Central Disaster Management Wireless Network
				Establishment of a Communication line to Send Images Taken by Helicopter
				Emergency Communication Line with the Prefectural Government
				Transportable Satellite Earth Station
				Concentration at the New Prime Minister´s Office
				Central Wireless Network of Today
		4.9 Improvement in the Wide-Area Support System
			4.9.1 Establishment of the Interprefectural Emergency Rescue Unit (The National Police Agency)
			4.9.2 Establishment of the Emergency Fire Rescue Team (The Fire and Disaster Management Agency)
				Foundation of the Emergency Fire Rescue Team
				Revision of the Emergency Fire Rescue Team Outline
				Acts
				Mutual Support Agreements Between Municipalities
				Wide-Area Use of Fire Agency Wireless
	5 The Utilization of GIS to Increase the Fire Resistance for Built-Up Areas Made Up of Wooden Buildings
		5.1 Progress in Built-Up Residential Urban Area Renewal Projects
		5.2 The Enactment of the Act on Promotion of Improvement of Disaster Management Districts in Populated Urban Districts
		5.3 The Revision of the Act on Promotion of Improvement of Disaster Management Districts in Populated Urban Districts
		5.4 The Criteria for Selecting Areas to Be Improved
		5.5 The Utilization of GIS for Preventive City Planning-Particularly for Built-up Areas Made Up of Wooden Buildings
	6 Summary
Chapter 2: Theory of Spare City Planning: For Temporary Use in Case of Emergency
	1 The Identification of Problems
	2 Local Evacuation Shelters
		2.1 History of Local Evacuation Shelters and the Situation in Kobe City
		2.2 Definition of a Local Evacuation Shelter
		2.3 Evacuation in the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
		2.4 Designation of Local Evacuation Shelters
			2.4.1 Evaluation of the Function of Regional Evacuation Areas
			2.4.2 Designation and Utilization of Local Evacuation Shelters
				Summary
				The Numbers of Local Evacuation Shelters and Evacuees
				The Population and Local Evacuation Shelters
				The Percentage of Collapsed Houses and Local Evacuation Shelters
				The Evacuation Range
			2.4.3 Criteria for Designating Local Evacuation Shelters
	3 Temporary Housing
		3.1 The Significance of Temporary Housing
		3.2 The Process for Building Temporary Housing in Kobe City
		3.3 Conditions for Calculating the Necessary Number of Temporary Houses
		3.4 Temporary Use of Public Subsidized Housing
		3.5 Determining the Number of Temporary Houses
		3.6 Selection of Temporary Housing Sites
		3.7 Direction of Discussions on Land for Temporary Housing
	4 Debris
		4.1 Significance of Debris Problems
		4.2 Facing Debris Problems
			4.2.1 Dealing by the National Government
				Entities Responsible for Debris Control
				Bearing Costs
				Involvement of the Self-Defense Forces
			4.2.2 Measures Taken by Hyogo Prefectural Government and Kobe Municipal Office
		4.3 Confusion over the Estimated Volume of Produced Debris
		4.4 Landfills
		4.5 Projected Volume of Debris Produced
			4.5.1 Estimating Seismic Intensity in the Event of an Earthquake
			4.5.2 Estimating Building Damage
			4.5.3 Estimating Volume of Debris Resulting from Damage to Buildings
Chapter 3: Reconstruction Plans
	1 Risk Management in Reconstruction Plans
	2 Risk Management by the National Government
		2.1 Legislative Risk Management
			2.1.1 The Great Kanto Earthquake (The Special City Planning Act as a Basic Reform Measure)
			2.1.2 The Amakusa Disaster (The Act on Special Financial Support for Promoting Group Relocation for Disaster Mitigation (The G...
			2.1.3 The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (The Act on Special Measures Concerning Reconstruction of Urban Districts Damaged by ...
				The Outline and Significance of Legislation After the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
				Significance of the Act on Special Measures Concerning Reconstruction of Urban Districts Damaged by Disaster
		2.2 Organizational Risk Management (By the Central Government)
			2.2.1 The Great Kanto Earthquake
				Imperial Capital Reconstruction Council
				The Imperial Capital Reconstruction Agency, the Reconstruction Bureau, and the Reconstruction Secretariat
					The Imperial Capital Reconstruction Agency
					The Reconstruction Bureau
					The Reconstruction Secretariat
			2.2.2 The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
				The Emergency Response Headquarters, the Special Assignment Office, and the Local Countermeasures Headquarters
				Debates in the National Government on Reconstruction Apparatus
				The Hanshin-Awaji Reconstruction Committee and the Hanshin and Awaji Reconstruction Measures Headquarters
				The Activities of the Hanshin-Awaji Reconstruction Committee and the Hanshin and Awaji Reconstruction Measures Headquarters
					The Hanshin-Awaji Reconstruction Committee
					Hanshin and Awaji Reconstruction Measures Headquarters
	3 An Examination of the Consensus Building Process
		3.1 Consensus Between Administrative Organs
			3.1.1 The Reconstruction Committee
				The Essential Points of the Committee´s Opinions
					Reconstruction Plans in a Broad Sense
					Reconstruction Plans in a Narrow Sense
				The Achievement Levels for the Proposed Opinions
					Reconstruction Plans in the Broad Sense
					Reconstruction Plans in the Narrow Sense
			3.1.2 The Reconstruction Measures Headquarters
			3.1.3 Central Government Ministries and Agencies
			3.1.4 The Act on Special Measures Concerning Reconstruction of Urban Districts Damaged by Disaster
				Restrictions on Building Activities, etc. (Article 7)
				The Purchase of Land (Article 8)
				Apartment Sites for Reconstruction
				Set-Aside Land for Public Houses, Common Facilities, and Convenience Facilities (Article 17 of the Law)
				The Relaxation of Requirements for Redevelopment Projects for Reconstruction (Article 19)
				Special Provisions on Eligibility for Moving into Public Housing, etc. (Article 21)
				Special Provisions Concerning the Urban Development Corporation and the Local Housing Corporations (Articles 22 and 23)
			3.1.5 The Hyogo Prefectural Government
		3.2 Local Residents Including Landowners
			3.2.1 The Kobe Municipal City Planning Council
			3.2.2 Town Development Councils
	4 Theory of Pre-Disaster Recovery Plan: Preventive Risk Management
		4.1 Imperial Capital Earthquake Reconstruction Plan
		4.2 Theory of Pre-Disaster Recovery Plan and Its Genealogy
			4.2.1 Theoretical Basis
				Delay in the Formulation of Urban Disaster Management Plan
				Implementation of the Reconstruction Plan After the Earthquake: Conflict of Interest
			4.2.2 Disaster Management Basic Plan
			4.2.3 Pre-Disaster Recovery Plan Development Study (National Land Agency)
				Assuming the Scale of Damage to Be Caused by an Earthquake
				Designating Target Districts for Reconstruction
				Preparation of Pre-Disaster Recovery Plan by District
			4.2.4 Tokyo Metropolitan Earthquake Reconstruction Grand Design and Disaster Prevention Urban Development Plan
			4.2.5 Proposals of Academic Societies on Reconstruction Plans After the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
				City Planning Institute of Japan (March 1995)
				Japan Society of Civil Engineers (March 1995)
				Architecture Institute of Japan (January 1998: The Third Proposal, Following Those of July 1995 and January 1997)
				Association of Urban Housing Society (February and March 1995)
				Institute of Social Safety Science (February 1995)
		4.3 The Goals of Reconstruction Plans
			4.3.1 The Principle of Promptness
				A Survey of the Affected Areas
				Publication of the ``Basic Policies on the Development of Urban Areas and Housing for Post-earthquake Reconstruction´´
				The Designation of Areas Based on Article 84 of the Building Standards Act
				The Establishment of the Emergency Earthquake Reconstruction Ordinance
				The Enactment of the Act on Special Measures Concerning Reconstruction of Urban Districts Damaged by Disaster
			4.3.2 The Principle of Disaster Resistance Strengthening
			4.3.3 The Relationship between the Rationalization/Specialization of Land Use and the Theory of Reconstruction Planning in the...
		4.4 The Types of Reconstruction Plans
			4.4.1 The First Type of Plan: Reconstruction Plans for the Restoration of the Original State and the Addition of Public Facili...
			4.4.2 Reconstruction Plans for Community Disaster Management
			4.4.3 Reconstruction Plans for Regional Risk Management
		4.5 The Theory of Pre-Disaster Planning for Reconstruction
			4.5.1 The Necessary Conditions for the Theory of Pre-Disaster Planning for Reconstruction
			4.5.2 The Sufficient Conditions for Pre-Disaster Planning for Reconstruction
				A Clear Statement That Disaster Management Is One of the Purposes of City Planning
				City Planning for Urban Facilities Used for Emergency Disaster Management Activities
				Improving the Land Swapping and Consolidation Method: Removing the ``Correspondence´´ Principle
				Creating Master Plans
				Seismic Retrofitting of Housing
Chapter 4: Summary and Issues That Need to Be Considered
	1 The Relationship Between the National Government and Local Governments
		1.1 Legislative Measures
			1.1.1 Laws Which Changed Citizens´ Rights and Obligations (Relief Measures for Victims)
			1.1.2 The Following Laws Were Enacted in Order to Show the National Government´s Commitment to the Post-Disaster Recovery and ...
			1.1.3 The Following Laws Were Enacted for the Implementation of Emergency Disaster Management Activities, the Post-Disaster Re...
			1.1.4 The Following Laws Were Enacted in Order to Ensure the Active Involvement of the National Government in Disaster-Resista...
		1.2 Organizational Measures
		1.3 Fiscal Measures
		1.4 Discussions Regarding Reconstruction Plans
	2 City Planning (Community Development) and Disaster Management
		2.1 Relations with Emergency Operations (Initial Response)
		2.2 Relations with Recovery Operations
		2.3 Relations with Reconstruction Plans
	3 Issues to Be Examined
		3.1 Prioritization of Areas with Close-Set Wooden Houses by DIS and Establishment of Implementation Mechanism
		3.2 Evacuation Centers
		3.3 Temporary Housing
		3.4 Debris Control
		3.5 Designation of Evacuation Centers, Temporary Housing, and Debris Management Sites Under City Planning (Spare City Developm...
		3.6 Pre-Disaster Recovery Plan
			3.6.1 Specifying Disaster Management Objectives in the City Planning Act
			3.6.2 Designation of Urban Facilities that Function as Emergency Operation Bases Under City Planning
			3.6.3 Improvement of Land Exchange and Consolidation Scheme-Abandoning the Principle of Exchange of Equivalents
			3.6.4 Formulation of Master Plan
		3.7 Seismic Retrofitting
Chapter 5: Conclusion: How to Embrace Lessons Learnt from Previous Earthquake Disasters
	1 Lessons from the Great Kanto Earthquake
	2 Lessons from the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
		2.1 Initial Response System
		2.2 Seismic Retrofitting of Buildings
	3 Great East Japan Earthquake
	4 Have We Learnt from Lessons?
		4.1 Initial Response System
			4.1.1 Enhancement of Cabinet Functions
			4.1.2 Immediate Collection of Information from Various Angles and Centralized Information Management System
			4.1.3 Swift Action
			4.1.4 Establishment of Wide-Area Support System
		4.2 Effects of Improvement
		4.3 Seismic Retrofitting of Buildings
		4.4 Pre-Disaster Recovery Plan
		4.5 Great East Japan Earthquake
Index