Dietary Sugar, Salt and Fat in Human Health

Cover
Dietary Sugar, Salt, and Fat in Human Health
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
	References
General background
1 Epidemiological perspectives of dietary sugars, salts and fats
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Dietary sugars
		1.2.1 Effects of dietary sugars on body weight and obesity
		1.2.2 Effects of dietary sugars on diabetes
		1.2.3 Effects of dietary sugars on cardiovascular diseases
		1.2.4 Effects of dietary sugars on kidney diseases
		1.2.5 Effects of dietary sugars on cancer
	1.3 Dietary salt
		1.3.1 Effects of dietary salts on blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases
		1.3.2 Effects of dietary salts on other diseases
	1.4 Dietary fats
		1.4.1 Effects of dietary fats on cardiovascular diseases
		1.4.2 Effects of dietary fats on cancer
			1.4.2.1 Breast cancer
			1.4.2.2 Colorectal cancer
			1.4.2.3 Prostate cancer
		1.4.3 Effects of dietary fats on obesity
	1.5 Conclusions
	References
2 Advancing age, influence of dietary sugars, salts, and fats on chronic diseases and metabolic disorders
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Influence of dietary sugar on diseases in elderly
		2.2.1 Chronic diseases
			2.2.1.1 Cardiovascular diseases
			2.2.1.2 Diabetes
			2.2.1.3 Neurological diseases
		2.2.2 Metabolic disorders
		2.2.3 Other disorders
	2.3 Influence of dietary salt on diseases in elderly
		2.3.1 Chronic diseases
			2.3.1.1 Cardiovascular diseases
				2.3.1.1.1 Salt sensitivity and other influential factors
			2.3.1.2 Kidney diseases
			2.3.1.3 Diabetes
		2.3.2 Metabolic disorders
			2.3.2.1 Hedonic shift
			2.3.2.2 Hyponatraemia
		2.3.3 Others disorders
	2.4 Influence of dietary fats on diseases in elderly
		2.4.1 Chronic diseases
			2.4.1.1 Cardiovascular diseases
			2.4.1.2 Neurological dysfunctions
				2.4.1.2.1 Cognitive dysfunction
				2.4.1.2.2 Depression
				2.4.1.2.3 Olfactory impairment
				2.4.1.2.4 Verbal fluency
			2.4.1.3 Diabetes
			2.4.1.4 Inflammatory and immune diseases
				2.4.1.4.1 Inflammation
				2.4.1.4.2 Immune function
		2.4.2 Metabolic disorders
		2.4.3 Other disorders
			2.4.3.1 Frailty
			2.4.3.2 Bone mineral density
			2.4.3.3 High blood lipid
			2.4.3.4 Aging
	2.5 Conclusion
	References
3 Dietary fat, salt, and sugar: a clinical perspective of the social catastrophe
	3.1 Introduction
		3.1.1 The “fat is harmful theory”: the origins
		3.1.2 Fat: dietary recommendations
		3.1.3 Total fat
		3.1.4 Trans fatty acids
		3.1.5 Saturated fats: making sense
		3.1.6 Monounstaurated fatty acids
		3.1.7 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
		3.1.8 n-3 fatty acids
		3.1.9 n-6 fatty acids
		3.1.10 Dietary cholesterol
		3.1.11 Molecular mechanisms of fat-induced insulin resistance and β-cell injury
			3.1.11.1 Effect of fat on pancreatic β-cells
		3.1.12 The sugar in diet: role of the industry
		3.1.13 Sugar intake: how much is safe per day
		3.1.14 Consequences of increased sugar intake
		3.1.15 Salt intake: what is considered safe and harmful
		3.1.16 Where does the salt come from in the food we eat?
		3.1.17 Metabolic consequences of excessive salt intake
			3.1.17.1 Hypertension
			3.1.17.2 Cardiovascular disease
			3.1.17.3 Obesity
			3.1.17.4 Renal disease
	3.2 Conclusions
	References
4 Influences of food ingredients on enterohepatic circulation of bile acids
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 An introduction to bile acids
	4.3 Function of bile acids—reasons for serum bile acids
	4.4 Relationship of bile acids with intestinal bacteria
	4.5 Food ingredients affect the circulation of bile acids
	References
5 Anemia: influence of dietary fat, sugar, and salt on hemoglobin and blood health
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Dietary fat
		5.1.2 Dietary sugar
		5.1.3 Dietary salt
	5.2 Anemia: disease pathophysiology and prevalence
	5.3 Underlying causes of chronic anemia
		5.3.1 Mechanisms of pH homeostasis
	5.4 Chronic anemia syndrome: a novel concept
	5.5 Treatment strategies
	5.6 Clinical investigations
		5.6.1 VMP35, a liquid noniron-containing multinutrient complex Prodovite
	5.7 Clinical investigation
		5.7.1 Study participants and ethical approval
		5.7.2 Protocol of the clinical investigation
		5.7.3 Findings of the investigation
		5.7.4 Phase contrast microscopy
	5.8 Case studies
		5.8.1 Case study #1
		5.8.2 Case study #2 (information as provided by permission of Gideon L. King)
	5.9 Summary and conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Food behavior, food addiction and metabolic syndrome
6 Sensory drivers of food behavior
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Sensory conception and the regulation of dietary intake
		6.2.1 Visual signals
		6.2.2 Aroma
		6.2.3 Flavor
		6.2.4 Texture
	6.3 Sensory experience of food and obesity
	6.4 Sensory features and energy content dilution
	6.5 Understanding nutrition-related behaviors
	6.6 Early drivers on the establishment of food preferences
		6.6.1 Olfactory and gustatory systems progression
		6.6.2 Biological impacts on food preferences
		6.6.3 Food neophobia
		6.6.4 Social influences on food preferences
	6.7 Sensory-specific satiety
	6.8 Conclusion
	References
7 Focusing the fight against processed food addiction
	7.1 Background
	7.2 Results
	7.3 Discussion
	7.4 Conclusions
	Conflict of interest
	Authors’ contributions
	Acknowledgments and funding
	References
8 Dietary influences on pediatric obesity and metabolic syndrome
	8.1 Background
	8.2 Dietary carbohydrates and carbohydrate-restricted diets
	8.3 Glycemic index
	8.4 Mediterranean diet
	8.5 Dietary fiber
	8.6 Fructose and high-fructose corn syrup
	8.7 Dietary fat and low-fat diets
	8.8 Trans-unsaturated fatty acids/trans fats
	8.9 Dietary protein and high-protein diets
	8.10 Branched-chain amino acids
	8.11 Calorie-restricted diets
	8.12 Vitamin D
	8.13 Current recommendations on staged management
	8.14 Conclusions
	References
9 An overview of addiction to sugar
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 The history of sugar
		9.1.2 How does high sugar-containing diets or drinks promote overeating and obesity?
	9.2 Sugar cravings and “sweet tooth”: as ancient as man?
		9.2.1 The concept of sugar addiction
			9.2.1.1 Sugar addiction: fact or fallacy
		9.2.2 Sugars, sugar metabolism, and the brain
			9.2.2.1 Sugars and the brain reward system
			9.2.2.2 Sugar: hedonic response and associated reward
				9.2.2.2.1 Fructose versus glucose: flavor preferences and hedonic response
		9.2.3 Can nonnutritive sweeteners potentiate sugar addiction?
		9.2.4 The gut–brain axis and sugar addiction
			9.2.4.1 Gut microbiome, cravings and sugar addiction
		9.2.5 Sugar addiction and the management of obesity and related dysmetabolism
	9.3 Conclusion
	References
Dietary sugar and health
10 Influence of dietary sugars on blood pressure regulation: historical, epidemiological, laboratory, and clinical consider...
	Abbreviations
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 General information concerning the “high blood pressures epidemic”
	10.3 Dietary differences between modern and primitive cultures: focus on carbohydrates
	10.4 Ecological perspective associating dietary sugar with age-related blood pressure elevation in the acculturated societies
	10.5 Historical background implying injury from dietary sugars particularly during the Yudkin Era
	10.6 Basics concerning the role carbohydrates and their metabolism play in blood pressure perturbations
		10.6.1 General background
		10.6.2 Focus on absorption: glycemic index and load
		10.6.3 Fructose
	10.7 United States carbohydrate intake over the preceding century and beyond
	10.8 Laboratory and clinical studies examining through the early decades the role of sugar consumption in blood pressure re...
		10.8.1 Overview
		10.8.2 1960s
		10.8.3 1970s
		10.8.4 1980s
		10.8.5 Following three decades (1990, 2000, and 2010)
	10.9 Correlation between insulin resistance and elevated blood pressure
	10.10 Is there important interaction between dietary sugars and salt?
	References
11 Glycation-induced protein aggregation and cellular toxicity: an insight into the disease realm of high dietary sugar intake
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Sources of advanced glycation end product
	11.3 Stages in the formation of advanced glycation end product
	11.4 Advanced glycation end product–mediated pathogenesis
	11.5 Cellular targets of glycation
	11.6 Glycation-induced cellular toxicity is mostly mediated by advanced glycation end product-protein adducts
		11.6.1 Protein cross-linking and aggregation
		11.6.2 Binding of AGE adducts to specific receptor for AGE expressed on macrophages and other cells: the AGE–RAGE signaling...
		11.6.3 Induction of amyloidogenic pathway: the long-standing debate regarding role of glycation
	11.7 Receptor for advanced glycation end product pathway as a cellular defense to counteract the recalcitrant amyloid fibrils
	11.8 Inhibition of advanced glycation end product accumulation: natural therapeutics versus synthetic formulations
	11.9 Conclusions
	11.10 Acknowledgments
	11.11 Conflict of interest
	References
12 Probing various pro and con health aspects of the glucose–insulin system in non-diabetics: focusing on insulin resistanc...
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Background
	12.3 Principle 1: trade-off in the glucose–insulin system
	12.4 Principle 2: surrogates for insulin resistance
	12.5 Principle 3: awareness of continuum of risks is extremely valuable
	12.6 Principle 4: the aging paradox for fasting blood glucose levels insulin resistance may provide an interesting lesson t...
	12.7 Principle 5: the old-fashion advice to eat and exercise properly is more important than ever
	References
13 Evaluating proposed surrogates to estimate insulin resistance in non-diabetics: emphasizing the ratio triglycerides/HDL-...
	Abbreviations
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Material and methods
		13.2.1 Correlation data
		13.2.2 General study procedures
		13.2.3 Body composition
		13.2.4 Blood chemistries
		13.2.5 Statistical analyses
	13.3 Results
		13.3.1 Correlation of quartiles
	13.4 Discussion
	References
14 Associations of high blood sugar with oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with type 2 diabetes
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Association of high blood sugar with oxidative stress in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
		14.2.1 Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in type 2 diabetes mellitus
		14.2.2 Defense systems against free radicals in type 2 diabetes mellitus
		14.2.3 Hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress in type 2 diabetes mellitus
			14.2.3.1 Protein kinase C pathway
			14.2.3.2 Polyol pathway
			14.2.3.3 Hexosamine pathway
			14.2.3.4 Advanced glycosylation end products
			14.2.3.5 Metabolic products of reactive oxygen species as biomarkers in type 2 diabetes mellitus
				14.2.3.5.1 Lipid peroxidation
				14.2.3.5.2 Oxidative damage of proteins
				14.2.3.5.3 Oxidative damage of DNA
	14.3 Association of high blood sugar with inflammation in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
		14.3.1 Inflammation and an immune response
		14.3.2 Inflammatory markers as predictors of type 2 diabetes mellitus development
		14.3.3 Hyperglycemia, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress in diabetic patients
		14.3.4 Mechanisms of high glucose-mediated inflammation in human monocytes
	14.4 Conclusions
	References
15 Assessing the triglyceride/HDL-cholesterol ratio as a surrogate for insulin resistance and its link to the metabolic syn...
	Abbreviations
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Material and methods
		15.2.1 Correlation data
		15.2.2 General study procedures
		15.2.3 Body composition
		15.2.4 Blood chemistries
		15.2.5 Statistical analyses
	15.3 Results
	15.4 Discussion
	15.5 Conclusions
	References
16 The benefit of Indian jaggery over sugar on human health
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Composition of jaggery
	16.3 Nutritional content of jaggery
	16.4 Production of jaggery
	16.5 Types of jaggery
		16.5.1 Liquid jaggery
		16.5.2 Granular or powder jaggery
		16.5.3 Solid jaggery (cube shape)
	16.6 Phytochemical profile of jaggery
	16.7 Medicinal benefit of jaggery
		16.7.1 Analgesic activity
		16.7.2 Antihepatotoxic activity
		16.7.3 Antihyperglycemic activity
		16.7.4 Diuretic activity
		16.7.5 Acetylcholine release
		16.7.6 Antiinflammatory effect
		16.7.7 Antihypercholesterolemic effect
		16.7.8 Antithrombotic activity
	16.8 Sugar and its classification
	16.9 Sugar consumption in India
	16.10 Health effect and sugar consumption
	16.11 Conclusions
	References
17 Linking fasting blood glucose quartiles of nondiabetic volunteers ages 21–84 years to metabolic syndrome components: foc...
	Abbreviations
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Material and methods
		17.2.1 Correlation data
		17.2.2 General study procedures
		17.2.3 Blood chemistries
		17.2.4 Statistical analyses
	17.3 Results
	17.4 Discussion
	References
Overindulgence of dietary salt
18 Salt-induced inappropriate augmentation of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system in chronic kidney disease
	Abbreviations
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Epidemiology of chronic kidney disease
	18.3 Risk factors of chronic kidney disease
		18.3.1 Genetic components
		18.3.2 Gender
		18.3.3 Ethnicity
		18.3.4 Age
		18.3.5 Smoking
		18.3.6 Socioeconomic status
		18.3.7 Obesity
		18.3.8 Glomerulonephritis
		18.3.9 Diabetes mellitus
		18.3.10 Hypertension
	18.4 Pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease
		18.4.1 Role of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system system in pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease
			18.4.1.1 Secondary messenger system
			18.4.1.2 Physiological distribution of angiotensin type 1
			18.4.1.3 Physiological role
		18.4.2 Role of colloid oncotic pressure in chronic kidney disease
		18.4.3 Role of transforming growth factor-beta in chronic kidney disease
	18.5 Effect of salt on chronic kidney disease
		18.5.1 Effect of salt on renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system
		18.5.2 Effect of salt on transforming growth factor-beta
	18.6 Proper amount of salt intake
	18.7 Conclusion
	References
19 Table salt (sodium chloride): vital aspects of metabolism and blood pressure regulation in health and disease
	19.1 Background
	19.2 Sodium balance
	19.3 Total body stores of sodium and potassium
	19.4 Preservation of body fluid
	19.5 Perturbations associated with volume
	19.6 Electrolyte problems of the modern western diet
	19.7 Focusing on dietary electrolyte content
	19.8 INTERSALT, INTERMAP, TOHP II, and DASH
		19.8.1 INTERSALT
		19.8.2 INTERMAP
		19.8.3 Trials of hypertension prevention II
		19.8.4 Dietary approach to stop hypertension
	19.9 Salt sensitivity
		19.9.1 General overview
		19.9.2 Genetic implications
		19.9.3 Exogenous factor implications: focus on potassium and sugars
			19.9.3.1 Potassium
			19.9.3.2 Dietary sugars: sucrose, high-fat corn syrup, fructose
	19.10 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
20 Nutraceuticals and functional foods in the prevention of hypertension induced by excessive intake of dietary salt
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Classification of hypertension and the risk factors
	20.3 Pathophysiology of hypertension
	20.4 Oxidative stress
	20.5 Inflammation
	20.6 Immunomodulation (immune dysfunction)
	20.7 Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system and its involvement in hypertension
	20.8 The link between dietary salt (sodium chloride) and other minerals with hypertension
	20.9 Sodium (Na+)
	20.10 The overall mechanism of dietary salt–induced hypertension
	20.11 Other major minerals involved in hypertension
	20.12 The current treatment regimen for hypertension (antihypertension medications)
	20.13 Standard antihypertensive drugs
	20.14 Dietary approach for management of hypertension
	20.15 Alternative therapy for the management of hypertension and its related complications (natural therapy)
	20.16 Dietary fibers
	20.17 Probiotics (prebiotics) and fermented milk products
	20.18 Soybean products (protein/peptide)
	20.19 Fish oil (omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids)
	20.20 Co Q10 (vitamin-like antioxidant)
	20.21 l-Arginine
	20.22 Grape and its related products
	20.23 Green tea or green tea catechins
	20.24 Garlic (Allium sativum)
	20.25 Beetroot juice (Beta vulgaris)
	20.26 Hawthorn
	20.27 Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
Dietary fat and cholesterol
21 Physiological role of cholesterol in human body
	21.1 Introduction
		21.1.1 Chemistry/structure of cholesterol
		21.1.2 Cholesterol biosynthesis
	21.2 Lipids and lipoproteins
		21.2.1 Chemistry of proteins
		21.2.2 Apolipoproteins
	21.3 Lipoprotein metabolism
		21.3.1 Lipoprotein receptors and lipid transporter
		21.3.2 Enzyme and transfer proteins
		21.3.3 Exogenous pathways
		21.3.4 Endogenous pathway
		21.3.5 Reverse cholesterol transport
	21.4 Physiology of cholesterol
		21.4.1 Intracellular cholesterol regulation
		21.4.2 Cholesterol and membrane structure
		21.4.3 Cholesterol in embryonic and fetal development
		21.4.4 Cholesterol metabolism in brain
		21.4.5 Cholesterol in retina
		21.4.6 Cholesterol—essential for life
	21.5 Pathophysiology—dyslipidemia
		21.5.1 Increased free fatty acids
		21.5.2 Increased triglycerides
		21.5.3 Small dense low-density lipoprotein
		21.5.4 Low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol
	21.6 Clinical implications
		21.6.1 Risk for cardiovascular disease
	21.7 Summary/conclusions
	References
	Further reading
22 Interplay between dietary sugars and fats and insulin resistance
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Insulin signaling pathway
	22.3 Insulin resistance
	22.4 Sugar and insulin resistance
	22.5 Fats and insulin resistance
		22.5.1 Saturated fatty acids and insulin resistance
		22.5.2 Monounsaturated fatty acids and insulin resistance
	22.6 Clinical evidences
	22.7 Conclusion
	References
23 Erythrocyte membranes in metabolic and neurological diseases—supplementation with fatty acids and membranes remodeling
	Abbreviations
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Remodeling of lipid bilayer in red blood cells
	23.3 The role of fatty acids in metabolic disorders
	23.4 The role of erythrocyte membrane fatty acids in neurological diseases
	23.5 Supplementation with fatty acids
	References
Dietary fiber, ketogenic diets, and benefits
24 Dietary fiber: a functional food ingredient with physiological benefits
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Definition and classification of fiber
	24.3 Technological functionality of dietary fiber
	24.4 Health benefits of dietary fiber
		24.4.1 Serum cholesterol management
		24.4.2 Dietary fiber and type-2 diabetes
		24.4.3 Dietary fiber, gut health, and cancer
		24.4.4 Dietary fiber and weight reduction
	24.5 Potential undesirable effects of dietary fiber
	24.6 Regulations and health claims
	24.7 Fiber recommendations and intakes
	24.8 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
25 The ketogenic diet in health and disease
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Physiology of the ketosis
	25.3 Ketogenic diets for weight loss in obesity
	25.4 Ketogenic diet for the management of diabetes
	25.5 Ketogenic diets for the treatment of dyslipidemia, hypertension, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and cardiovascular ...
		25.5.1 Dyslipidemia
		25.5.2 Hypertension
		25.5.3 Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
		25.5.4 Overall mortality
	25.6 Ketogenic diets for the treatment of neurological conditions
		25.6.1 Epilepsy
		25.6.2 Cognitive impairment
	25.7 Ketogenic diets in cancer
	25.8 Ketogenic diets in polycystic ovarian syndrome
	25.9 Conclusions
	References
26 Dietary fat, salt, and sugar—a teenager’s view
	References
Appendix Commentary: From the Editor’s desk Reflecting on changes in nutritional risk factors over time
	References
Index
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