Dielectric Materials for Electrical Engineering

Title Page......Page 2
Copyright
......Page 3
Table of Contents......Page 4
PART 1 General Physics Phenomena......Page 18
1.1. Definitions......Page 19
1.2. Different types of polarization......Page 20
1.2.3. Electronic polarization......Page 21
1.2.5. Orientation polarization......Page 23
1.3.1. Polarization of solids with metallic bonding......Page 24
1.3.2. Polarization of iono-covalent solids......Page 25
1.3.4. Average field in a neutral medium......Page 27
1.3.5. Medium containing excess charges......Page 29
1.3.6. Local field......Page 30
1.3.7. Frequency response of a dielectric......Page 31
1.4. Bibliography......Page 32
2.1. Introduction......Page 33
2.2.1. Consideration of the polarization......Page 34
2.2.2. Coupling of a charge with a polarizable medium: electrostatic approach......Page 36
2.2.3. Coupling of a charge with a polarizable medium: quantum approach......Page 38
2.2.4. Conduction mechanisms......Page 41
2.3.1. Localization and trapping of the small polaron......Page 42
2.3.2. Localization and intrinsic trapping of the carriers......Page 43
2.3.3. Trapping on structure defects and impurities......Page 44
2.3.4. Localization related to disorder......Page 46
2.4.2. Detrapping under an electric field by the Poole-Frankel effect......Page 49
2.5. Bibliography......Page 51
3.1. Introduction......Page 52
3.2. Molecular modeling applied to polymers......Page 55
3.2.1. Energy diagram: from the n-alkanes to polyethylene......Page 56
3.2.2. Results of modeling......Page 60
3.3. Macroscopic models......Page 66
3.3.1. Elementary processes......Page 68
3.3.2. Some models characterizing the experimental behavior......Page 73
3.4.1. Unification of atomistic and macroscopic approaches......Page 78
3.4.2. Interface behavior......Page 80
3.4.3. Physical models for transport in volume......Page 81
3.4.4. Degradation induced by a charge and/or a field......Page 82
3.5. Conclusions......Page 83
3.6. Bibliography......Page 84
4.2. Dynamics of polarization mechanisms......Page 93
4.2.2. Dipolar polarization......Page 94
4.3. Orientation polarization in the time domain......Page 95
4.3.2. Discrete distribution of relaxation times......Page 96
4.4.1. Single relaxation time model: the Debye equation......Page 97
4.4.2. Discrete distribution of relaxation times......Page 98
4.4.4. Parametric analytical expressions......Page 99
4.5.1. Shift factor......Page 101
4.5.2. Crystalline or vitreous phases: Arrhenius equation......Page 102
4.5.4. Liquid phases: Vogel?Fulcher?Tammann equation VFT......Page 104
4.6.1. Primary relaxation mode......Page 106
4.6.2. Secondary relaxation modes......Page 108
4.7. Relaxation modes of semi-crystalline polymers......Page 110
4.7.2. Discrete spectrum of elementary relaxations in a heterogenous medium......Page 111
4.8. Conclusion......Page 112
4.9. Bibliography......Page 113
5.2. Electrification of solid bodies by separation/contact......Page 115
5.2.1. The process......Page 116
5.2.2. Charge transfer mechanism by the separation contact of two different conductors......Page 117
5.2.3. Polymer?metal contact......Page 120
5.2.5. Triboelectric series......Page 121
5.3. Electrification of solid particles......Page 122
5.3.1. Theoretical work by Masuda et al.......Page 123
5.3.2. Experimental work by Touchard et al. [TOU 91]......Page 124
5.5. Bibliography......Page 129
PART 2 Phenomena Associated with Environmental Stress ? Ageing......Page 131
6.1. Introduction......Page 132
6.2. History......Page 133
6.3. Space charge measurement methods in solid insulators......Page 136
6.3.1. Destructive methods......Page 137
6.3.2. Non-destructive methods......Page 138
6.4. Trends and perspectives......Page 142
6.5. Bibliography......Page 143
7.1. Introduction......Page 147
7.2.1. Volume of interaction and penetration depth......Page 148
7.2.2. The different emissions......Page 149
7.3.2. Insulators under electron irradiation......Page 153
7.4.1. Introduction......Page 165
7.4.2. Static methods......Page 166
7.4.3. Dynamical methods......Page 168
7.5. Conclusion......Page 171
7.6. Bibliography......Page 172
8.1. Introduction......Page 177
8.2. Electrical breakdown......Page 178
8.3.1. Definition......Page 180
8.3.2. Potential precursors......Page 181
8.3.3. Induced precursors......Page 185
8.3.4. Observed precursors......Page 188
8.4. Conclusion......Page 191
8.5. Bibliography......Page 192
9.1. Introduction......Page 200
9.2.1. Presentation......Page 201
9.2.2. Interpretation of the process and introduction to the notion of a dilaton......Page 203
9.3. Thermodynamic approach according to Crine......Page 206
9.4. Microscopic approach according to Dissado?Mazzanti?Montanari......Page 211
9.4.1. Thermal ageing......Page 212
9.4.2. Ageing under electrical field: space charges effect......Page 213
9.5. Conclusions and perspectives......Page 216
9.6. Bibliography......Page 217
PART 3 Characterization Methods and Measurement......Page 220
10.1. Introduction......Page 221
10.2. Standard experiments......Page 222
10.3.1. General equations......Page 223
10.3.3. Voltage measurement at a fixed charge: case......Page 224
10.4. Dipolar polarization......Page 225
10.4.1. Examples......Page 227
10.5. Intrinsic conduction......Page 228
10.5.1. Example: charged insulator irradiated by a high-energy electron beam......Page 229
10.6.1. Electrostatic models......Page 230
10.6.2. Models combining electrostatics and thermodynamics: the influence of trapping and dispersive transport......Page 231
10.6.3. Purely thermodynamic models: current controlled by detrapping......Page 233
10.6.4. Interface-limited charge injection......Page 235
10.7. Which model for which material?......Page 236
10.8. Bibliography......Page 237
11.1. Introduction......Page 239
11.2.2. PEA device......Page 240
11.2.3. Measurement description......Page 242
11.2.4. Signal processing......Page 244
11.2.5. Example of measurement......Page 246
11.3.1. Resolution in the thickness......Page 248
11.4.1. Measurements under high voltage......Page 249
11.4.2. High and low temperature measurements......Page 250
11.4.4. 3D detection system......Page 251
11.4.5. PEA system with high repetition speed......Page 253
11.4.7. Measurements under irradiation......Page 254
11.6. Bibliography......Page 256
12.1. Introduction......Page 260
12.2.1. Principle......Page 261
12.2.2. Characteristic FLIMM equation......Page 262
12.3. The FLAMM method......Page 263
12.5. Mathematical deconvolution......Page 264
12.5.2. The scale transformation method......Page 265
12.5.3. The regularization method......Page 266
12.6.1. 1-D study of PEN Polyethylene Naphtalate subjected to high fields......Page 267
12.6.2. 2-D charge distribution......Page 270
12.6.3. 3-D charge distributions......Page 273
12.8. Bibliography......Page 276
13.1. Introduction......Page 279
13.3. Establishment of fundamental equations for the determination of space charge distribution......Page 280
13.3.1. Specific case: uncharged or charged and short-circuited sample V=0......Page 281
13.3.2. General case: charged sample submitted to an electrical potential difference......Page 282
13.3.4. Relationships between measured signals and charge distribution......Page 283
13.4.1. Synoptic schema of the measurement setup......Page 284
13.4.2. Generation of pressure......Page 285
13.4.4. Calibration of the experimental setup......Page 287
13.4.5. Signal processing......Page 289
13.5.1. Performances......Page 290
13.6. Examples of use of the method......Page 291
13.9. Bibliography......Page 293
14.1. Introduction......Page 296
14.2.1. The TSM in short circuit conditions......Page 297
14.2.2. Evolution of the TSM for measurements under a continuous applied electric field......Page 300
14.2.3. Calibration: use of measurements under low applied field for the determination of material parameters......Page 303
14.3. Numerical resolution methods......Page 304
14.4. Experimental set-up......Page 306
14.4.1. Plate-type samples......Page 307
14.4.2. Power cables......Page 309
14.5.1. Materials......Page 313
14.5.2. Components......Page 319
14.6. Conclusion......Page 328
14.7. Bibliography......Page 329
15.1. Introduction......Page 331
15.2.1. Transformers and power capacitors......Page 332
15.2.2. Energy transport cables and dry capacitors......Page 334
15.3.1. Infrared spectrophotometry......Page 339
15.3.2. Calorimetric analysis......Page 342
15.3.3. Thermostimulated currents......Page 344
15.4. Conclusion......Page 346
15.5. Bibliography......Page 347
16.1. Introduction......Page 352
16.2. Generalities......Page 353
16.3.1. Composition......Page 357
16.3.3. Characteristics......Page 359
16.4.2. Characteristics......Page 362
16.5.1. Composition and implementation......Page 368
16.5.2. Characteristics......Page 369
16.6.1. Composition and implementation......Page 371
16.7.1. Composition and implementation......Page 372
16.7.2. Characteristics......Page 373
16.8.1. Characteristics related to fire......Page 375
16.8.2. Toxicology and ecotoxicology......Page 377
16.9. Conclusion and perspectives......Page 378
16.10. Bibliography......Page 379
17.1.1. Electrokinetic effects......Page 383
17.1.3. Electrorheological effects......Page 384
17.2.1. Electrorheological effect......Page 385
17.2.2. Characterization of electrorheological fluids......Page 386
17.2.3. Composition of electrorheological fluids......Page 389
17.3. Mechanisms and modeling of the electrorheological effect......Page 391
17.3.2. Mechanisms of the electrorheological effect......Page 392
17.4. The conduction model......Page 396
17.4.1. The bases of the conduction model......Page 397
17.4.2. Attraction force between half-spheres......Page 398
17.5. Giant electrorheological effect......Page 400
17.7. Bibliography......Page 401
18.1. Introduction......Page 406
18.2.1. Characteristic parameters......Page 407
18.2.2. Conclusions on the different families of capacitors......Page 412
18.3. Electrolytic capacitors......Page 413
18.4.1. Principles and composition [PER 03], [ALV 95]......Page 414
18.4.2. Assembly and connections [PER 03]......Page 415
18.5.1. Principle, composition and glimpse of the manufacture [BES 90], [KEM 01], [LAG 96], [PRY 01]......Page 417
18.5.2. Assembly and connections......Page 419
18.6.1. Representative electrical diagram......Page 420
18.6.2. Loss factors, loss angles......Page 422
18.6.3. Variation as a function of the voltage......Page 425
18.6.4. Variation as a function of the ambient temperature......Page 426
18.7.1. Modes and failure rates of components......Page 429
18.7.2. Influence of temperature......Page 430
18.7.3. Failures of liquid electrolyte aluminum electrolytic capacitors......Page 431
18.7.4. Failures of solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors......Page 433
18.8. Conclusion and perspectives......Page 434
18.9. Bibliography......Page 435
19.1. Introduction......Page 438
19.2. Homogenous cation-exchange membranes......Page 441
19.3. Heterogenous ion exchange membranes......Page 442
19.4. Polymer/acid membranes......Page 444
19.5. Characterization of membranes......Page 445
19.5.1. Nernst?Planck flux equation......Page 446
19.5.2. Osmotic phenomena and electric potential......Page 448
19.5.3. Ionic diffusion in ion exchange membranes......Page 450
19.5.4. Electromotive force of concentration cells and transport number......Page 451
19.5.5. Conductivity......Page 453
19.5.6. Electro-osmosis......Page 455
19.5.7. Thermodynamics of irreversible processes and transport numbers......Page 456
19.6.1. Water sorption......Page 460
19.6.2. Determination of the ion exchange capacity......Page 461
19.6.3. Measurements of transport number and mobility of protons in membranes......Page 462
19.6.4. Measurement of conductivity......Page 464
19.6.5. Electro-osmotic measurements......Page 469
19.6.6. Measurements of the permeability of reformers in membranes: methanol permeability in vapour phase......Page 470
19.7. Determination of membrane morphology using the SEM technique......Page 472
19.8. Thermal stability......Page 473
19.9. Acknowledgements......Page 474
19.10. Bibliography......Page 475
20.1. Brief history......Page 479
20.2. Origin of conduction in organic semiconductors......Page 481
20.3. Electrical and optical characteristics of organic semiconductors......Page 482
20.4.1. General structure of an organic electroluminescent diode OLED......Page 484
20.4.2. Electroluminescence efficiency......Page 485
20.4.3. Advancement of the technology......Page 487
20.5.2. Functioning of an organic photovoltaic cell......Page 488
20.5.3. Advancement of the technology......Page 490
20.6.1. Deposition of polymer solutions......Page 491
20.6.3. Laser thermal transfer of organic materials......Page 492
20.8. Bibliography......Page 493
21.1. Introduction......Page 497
21.2.2. Free space......Page 498
21.2.4. Thermal environment......Page 499
21.2.7. Charged particles [HID 05]......Page 500
21.2.8. Meteoroids and cosmic debris......Page 502
21.3.3. Coatings for thermal control......Page 503
21.3.5. Radiator coatings......Page 504
21.4.1. Electrical conductivity......Page 505
21.4.2. Electrostatic discharges in the geostationary environment......Page 510
21.5. Conclusion......Page 514
21.6. Bibliography......Page 515
22.1. Introduction......Page 517
22.2.1. Introduction to plastic materials......Page 518
22.2.2. Consumption of plastic materials......Page 519
22.2.3. Plastics in electrical engineering......Page 520
22.3.1. Generation and recovery of plastic residues......Page 521
22.3.2. Processings at the end of life......Page 523
22.3.3. Potential and limitations of recycling......Page 529
22.4. Bibliography......Page 531
23.1. Introduction......Page 533
23.2.1. Polyvinylidene fluoridePVDF......Page 534
23.2.3. The odd-numbered polyamides......Page 537
23.2.4. Copolymers constituted of vinylidene cyanide monomer......Page 539
23.3.1. Ferroelectricity......Page 540
23.3.3. Amorphous Polyvinylidene cyanide copolymers......Page 543
23.3.4. Influence of chemical composition and physical structure on the electroactive properties of polymers......Page 545
23.3.5. Protocols of polarization......Page 546
23.3.6. Piezoelectricity......Page 547
23.3.7. Reduction of the number of independent coefficients ? Matrix notation......Page 548
23.3.8. Piezoelectric constitutive equations......Page 549
23.3.9. Comparison of piezoelectric properties......Page 550
23.4.1. Transmitting transducers......Page 551
23.5.1. Principle......Page 553
23.5.3. Characteristics of ultrasonic transducers......Page 554
23.5.4. Hydrophones......Page 555
23.5.6. Biomedical transducer applications......Page 557
23.7. Bibliography......Page 558
24.1. Introduction......Page 561
24.2.1. Arc commutation......Page 562
24.2.2. Composite insulators......Page 565
24.3. Power transformer insulation......Page 567
24.4. Perspectives......Page 568
24.6. Bibliography......Page 572
List of Authors......Page 574
Index......Page 578