Diagnostic Ultrasound, 2-Volume Set

Cover
Front Matter
Copyright
About the Editors
	Contributors
	Dedication
	Preface
	Acknowledgments
Our Cover
Video Contents
1 Ultrasound Physics, Bioeffects, and Contrast
	1. Physics of Ultrasound
		BASIC ACOUSTICS
			Wavelength and Frequency
			Propagation of Sound
			Distance Measurement
			Acoustic Impedance
			Reflection
			Refraction
			Attenuation
		INSTRUMENTATION
			Transmitter
			Transducer
			Receiver
			Image Display
			Mechanical Sector Scanners
			Arrays
				Linear Arrays
				Curved Arrays
				Phased Arrays
			Transducer Selection
		IMAGE DISPLAY AND STORAGE
		SPECIAL IMAGING MODES
			Tissue Harmonic Imaging
			Spatial Compounding
			Three-Dimensional Ultrasound
			Ultrasound Elastography
				Strain Elastography
				Shear Wave Elastography
		IMAGE QUALITY
			Spatial Resolution
		DOPPLER SONOGRAPHY
			Doppler Signal Processing and Display
			Doppler Instrumentation
			Power Doppler
			Interpretation of the Doppler Spectrum
			Interpretation of Color Doppler
			Other Technical Considerations
				Doppler Frequency
				Wall Filters
				Spectral Broadening
				Doppler Angle
				Sample Volume Size
				Doppler Gain
		ULTRASOUND ARTIFACTS
			Assumptions in Gray-Scale Imaging
			Speed of Sound Artifacts
			Attenuation of Sound Artifacts
			Shadowing
			Increased Through-Transmission
			Path of Sound-Related Artifacts
				Mirror Image Artifact
				Reverberation Artifact
				Comet-Tail Artifact
				Refraction Artifact
				Anisotropy
			Gas-Related Artifacts
				Ring-Down Artifact
				Dirty Shadowing Artifact
			Beam Profile-Related Artifacts
				Side Lobe and Grating Lobe Artifacts
				Partial Volume Averaging
			Doppler Imaging Artifacts
				Loss or Distortion of Doppler Information
				Artifactual Vascular Flow
				Tissue Vibration Artifact
				Aliasing and Velocity Scale Errors
				Artifactual Spectral Broadening
				Blooming Artifact
				Twinkle Artifact
		THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS: HIGH-INTENSITY FOCUSED ULTRASOUND
		ACKNOWLEDGMENT
		REFERENCES
2 Biologic Effects and Safety
	2. Biologic Effects and Safety
		Regulation of Ultrasound Output
		Physical Effects of Sound
		Effects of Acoustic Cavitation
			Potential Sources for Bioeffects
			Sonochemistry
			Mechanical Index
			Evidence of Cavitation From Lithotripters
			Bioeffects in Lung and Intestine
			Ultrasound Contrast Agents
			Considerations for Increasing Acoustic Output
			Summary Statement on Gas Body Bioeffects
		Thermal Effects
			Ultrasound Produces Heat
			Factors Controlling Tissue Heating
				Spatial Focusing
				Temporal Considerations
				Tissue Type
			Bone Heating
			Soft Tissue Heating
			Hyperthermia and Ultrasound Safety
			Thermal Index
				Homogeneous Tissue Model (Soft Tissue)
				Tissue Model With Bone at the Focus (Fetal Applications)
				Tissue Model With Bone at the Surface (Transcranial Applications)
				Estimate of Thermal Effects
			Summary Statement on Thermal Effects
		Output Display Standard
		General AIUM Safety Statements
		Epidemiology
		Controlling Ultrasound Output
			Impact on Image Quality
		Ocular Imaging Safety
		Obstetric Ultrasound Safety
		Ultrasound Entertainment Videos
		Conclusion
		References
3 Contrast Agents for Ultrasound
	3. Contrast Agents for Ultrasound: From Principles to Practice
		INTRODUCTION
		CONTRAST AGENTS FOR ULTRASOUND
			Contrast Agent Types
				Blood Pool Agents
					Free Gas Bubbles
					Encapsulated Air Bubbles
					``Second-Generation\'\' Agents
				Selective Uptake Agents
		THE NEED FOR BUBBLE-SPECIFIC IMAGING
			Bubble Behavior and Incident Pressure
			The Mechanical Index
		NONLINEAR ECHOES AND HARMONIC IMAGING
			Harmonic B-mode Imaging
			Harmonic Spectral and Power Doppler Imaging
			Tissue Harmonic Imaging
			Pulse Inversion Imaging
			Pulse Inversion Doppler Imaging
			Plane-Wave Contrast Imaging
			Amplitude and Phase Modulation Imaging
			Temporal Maximum Intensity Projection Imaging
		DISRUPTING BUBBLES: INTERMITTENT IMAGING
			Triggered Imaging
			Intermittent Harmonic Power Doppler for Bubble Detection
			Disruption-Replenishment Imaging: Measuring Perfusion
		SUMMARY OF MICROBUBBLE CONTRAST PRINCIPLES
		SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS AND REGULATORY STATUS
		HOW TO START A CONTRAST-ENHANCED ULTRASONOGRAPHY PRACTICE
			Clinical Applications
			Practical Considerations
				Initially, Focus on 1-2 Key Areas/Organs
					Renal
					Liver
					US Guided Interventions
					Endovascular Aortic Repair Endoleak Detection
					Vesicoureteral Reflux
				US/PACS Equipment Requirements
				Ultrasound Contrast Agent Selection/Patient Safety Requirements
				Training (Radiologist/Sonographer)
			Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasonography Workflow
				Ordering/Scheduling/Billing
				Patient History Evaluation
				Who Will Start the Intravenous, Prepare and Inject the Contrast
				Day of Study
				Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasonography Study
				Market Your Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasonography Capabilities
			Limitations
		CONCLUSION
		THE FUTURE
		REFERENCES
4 The Liver
	TWO - Abdominal Sonography
		4. The Liver
			SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
			NORMAL ANATOMY
				Couinaud Anatomy
				Ligaments
				Hepatic Circulation
					Portal Veins
					Arterial Circulation
					Hepatic Venous System
				Normal Liver Size and Echogenicity
			DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALIES
				Agenesis
				Anomalies of Position
				Accessory Fissures
				Vascular Anomalies
			CONGENITAL ABNORMALITIES
				Liver Cyst
				Peribiliary Cysts
				Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Disease
				Biliary Hamartomas (von Meyenburg Complexes)
			INFECTIOUS DISEASES
				Viral Hepatitis
					Clinical Manifestations
				Bacterial Diseases
				Fungal Diseases: Candidiasis
				Parasitic Diseases
					Amebiasis
					Hydatid Disease
					Schistosomiasis
				Other infections
			DISORDERS OF METABOLISM
				Fatty Liver
				Glycogen Storage Disease (Glycogenosis)
				Cirrhosis
					Doppler Ultrasound Characteristics
					Elastography
			VASCULAR ABNORMALITIES
				Portal Hypertension
				Portal Vein Thrombosis
				Budd-Chiari Syndrome
				Portal Vein Aneurysm
				Intrahepatic Portosystemic Venous Shunts
				Aneurysm, Pseudoaneurysm, and Dissection
				Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia
				Peliosis Hepatis
			HEPATIC MASSES
				Liver Mass Characterization With Gray-Scale and Doppler Sonography
				Liver Mass Evaluation With Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
				Advantages Unique to Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
				Lesional Enhancement
				Liver Mass Detection
			PRIMARY BENIGN HEPATIC NEOPLASMS
				Cavernous Hemangioma
				Focal Nodular Hyperplasia
				Hepatic Adenoma
				Fatty Tumors: Hepatic Lipomas and Angiomyolipomas
			PRIMARY MALIGNANT HEPATIC NEOPLASMS
				Hepatocellular Carcinoma
					CEUS LI-RADS
					LI-RADS Malignant Categories
					Fibrolamellar Carcinoma
				Hemangiosarcoma (Angiosarcoma)
				Hepatic Epithelioid Hemangioendothelioma
			METASTATIC LIVER DISEASE
				Peripheral Cholangiocarcinoma
				Kaposi Sarcoma
			HEPATIC TRAUMA
				Portosystemic Shunts
					Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunts
			PERCUTANEOUS LIVER BIOPSY
			INTRAOPERATIVE ULTRASOUND
			CONCLUSION
			ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
			References
5 The Spleen
	5. The Spleen
		EMBRYOLOGY, ANATOMY, AND FUNCTION
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
		SONOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE
			Elastography
		PATHOLOGIC CONDITIONS
			Splenomegaly
			Focal Abnormalities
				Splenic Cysts
				Nodular Splenic Lesions
				Focal Solid Splenic Lesions
					Malignancies
					Benign Lesions
			Other Abnormalities
				Sickle Cell Disease
				Gaucher Disease
				Gamna-Gandy Bodies
			Splenic Trauma
		CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
		INTERVENTIONAL PROCEDURES
		PITFALLS IN INTERPRETATION
		CONCLUSION
		ACKNOWLEDGMENT
		REFERENCES
6 The Biliary Tree and Gallbladder
	6. The Biliary Tree and Gallbladder
		THE BILIARY TREE
			Anatomy and Normal Variants
			Sonographic Technique
			Choledochal Cysts (Congenital Biliary Dilatation)
			Caroli Disease
			Overview of Biliary Tree Obstruction
			Choledocholithiasis
			Intrahepatic Stones
			Common Bile Duct Stones
			Mirizzi Syndrome
			Hemobilia
			Pneumobilia
			Biliary Tree Infection
				Acute (Bacterial, Ascending) Cholangitis
				Low Phospholipid-Associated Cholelithiasis Syndrome
				Liver Flukes
				Recurrent Pyogenic Cholangitis
				Ascariasis
				HIV Cholangiopathy
			Immune-Related Diseases of the Biliary Tree
				Primary Biliary Cirrhosis and Autoimmune Cholangitis
				Sclerosing Cholangitis
				Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis
				IgG4-Related Cholangitis
			Cholangiocarcinoma
				Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma
				Hilar Cholangiocarcinoma
				Assessment by Contrast-Enhanced Sonography
				Distal Cholangiocarcinoma
			Metastases to Biliary Tree
		THE GALLBLADDER
			Anatomy and Normal Variants
			Sonographic Technique
			Gallstone Disease
			Biliary Sludge
			Acute Cholecystitis
			Coexisting Common Bile Duct Stones
				Gangrenous Cholecystitis
				Perforated Gallbladder
				Emphysematous Cholecystitis
				Acalculous Cholecystitis
				Hemorrhagic Cholecystitis
			Torsion (Volvulus) of Gallbladder
			Xanthogranulomatous Cholecystitis
			Porcelain Gallbladder
			Adenomyomatosis (Adenomatous Hyperplasia)
			Polypoid Masses of Gallbladder
			Management of Gallbladder Polyps
				Cholesterol Polyps
				Adenomas, Adenomyomas, Inflammatory, and Fibromyoglandular Polyps
			Gallbladder Malignancies
				Gallbladder Carcinoma
					Patterns of Tumor Spread
					Sonographic Appearance
				Metastases to the Gallbladder
		REFERENCES
7 Pancreatic Sonography
	7. Pancreatic Sonography
		INTRODUCTION
		ANATOMY AND SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
			Pancreatic Body
			Pancreatic Head
			Pancreatic Tail
			Pancreatic Parenchyma
				Fatty Pancreas
			Embryology and Pancreatic Duct
			Imaging Anatomic Variants
			Peripancreatic Structures
		ACUTE PANCREATITIS
			Approach to Imaging
			Ultrasound Findings
			Complications
				Acute Fluid Collections
				Pseudocysts
				Necrosis and Abscess
				Treatment
				Vascular Complications
		CHRONIC PANCREATITIS
			Approach to Imaging
			Ultrasound Findings
				Pseudocysts
				Portal and Splenic Vein Thrombosis
			Masses Associated With Chronic Pancreatitis
		PANCREATIC NEOPLASMS
			Periampullary Neoplasm
			Pancreatic Carcinoma
			Detection of Pancreatic Cancer
				Ultrasound Findings
				Resectability Imaging
				Color Doppler Ultrasound
			Biopsy
		CYSTIC PANCREATIC LESIONS
			Simple Pancreatic Cysts
			Cystic Neoplasms
				Serous Cystic Neoplasm
				Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasm
				Mucinous Cystic Neoplasm
				Solid-Pseudopapillary Tumor
				Rare Cystic Tumors
		OTHER PANCREATIC MASSES
			Endocrine Tumors
			Unusual and Rare Neoplasms
				Lipoma
				Metastatic Tumors
		CONTRAST-ENHANCED ULTRASOUND
		CONCLUSION
		ACKNOWLEDGMENT
		REFERENCES
8 The Gastrointestinal Tract
	8. The Gastrointestinal Tract
		ANATOMY AND SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
			The Gut Signature
			Gut Wall Pathology
			Imaging Technique
				Gray-Scale Imaging
				Doppler Evaluation of Gut Wall
				Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound and Elastography of the Bowel
		GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT NEOPLASMS
			Adenocarcinoma
			Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors
			Lymphoma
			Metastases
				Benign Bowel Lesions
		INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE: CROHN DISEASE
			Classic Features
				Gut Wall Thickening
				Inflammatory Fat
				Lymphadenopathy
				Hyperemia
				Mucosal Abnormalities
				Conglomerate Masses
			Complications
				Strictures
				Incomplete Mechanical Bowel Obstruction
				Localized Perforation
				Inflammatory Masses
				Fistula Formation
				Perianal Inflammatory Disease
		ACUTE ABDOMEN
			Right Lower Quadrant Pain
				Acute Appendicitis
				Granulomatous Appendicitis
				Right-Sided Diverticulitis
				Acute Typhlitis
				Mesenteric Adenitis With Terminal Ileitis
				Segmental Omental Infarction
			Left Lower Quadrant Pain
				Acute Diverticulitis
				Epiploic Appendagitis
		OTHER ABNORMALITIES
			Mechanical Bowel Obstruction
			Paralytic Ileus
			Gut Edema
			Gastrointestinal Tract Infections
				AIDS Patients
				Pseudomembranous Colitis
				Congenital Cysts
				Ischemic Bowel Disease
				Pneumatosis Intestinalis
				Mucocele of Appendix
				Gastrointestinal Tract Hematoma
				Peptic Ulcer
				Bezoars
				Intraluminal Foreign Bodies
				Celiac Disease
				Cystic Fibrosis
		ENDOSONOGRAPHY
			Upper Gastrointestinal Tract
				Gastric Lymphoma
			Rectum: Tumor Staging of Rectal Carcinoma
			Anal Canal
				Fecal Incontinence
				Perianal Inflammatory Disease
		CONCLUSION
		ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
		REFERENCES
9 The Kidney and Urinary Tract
	9. The Kidney and Urinary Tract
		EMBRYOLOGY
			Development of the Kidneys and Ureter
			Development of the Bladder
			Development of the Urethra
		ANATOMY
			Kidney
			Ureter
			Bladder
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
			Kidney
			Ureter
			Bladder and Urethra
		HYDRONEPHROSIS
		PITFALLS IN ASSESSMENT OF OBSTRUCTION
		CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
			Anomalies Related to Renal Growth
				Hypoplasia
				Fetal Lobation
				Compensatory Hypertrophy
			Anomalies Related to Ascent of Kidney
				Ectopia
				Crossed Renal Ectopia
				Horseshoe Kidney
			Anomalies Related to Ureteral Bud
				Renal Agenesis
				Supernumerary Kidney
				Duplex Collecting System and Ureterocele
				Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction
				Congenital Megacalyces
				Congenital Megaureter
			Anomalies Related to Vascular Development
				Aberrant Vessels
				Retrocaval Ureter
			Anomalies Related to Bladder Development
				Bladder Agenesis
				Bladder Duplication
				Bladder Exstrophy
				Urachal Anomalies
			Anomalies Related to Urethral Development: Diverticula
		GENITOURINARY INFECTIONS
			Pyelonephritis
				Acute Pyelonephritis
				Renal and Perinephric Abscess
				Pyonephrosis
				Emphysematous Pyelonephritis
				Emphysematous Pyelitis
				Chronic Pyelonephritis
				Xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis
			Papillary Necrosis
			Tuberculosis
			Fungal Infections
				Candida Albicans
			Parasitic Infections
				Schistosomiasis
				Echinococcal (Hydatid) Disease
			Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
			Cystitis
				Infectious Cystitis
				Malacoplakia
				Emphysematous Cystitis
				Chronic Cystitis
		FISTULAS, STONES (CALCULI), AND CALCIFICATION
			Bladder Fistulas
			Renal Calculi
			Staghorn Calculus
			Ureteral Calculi
			Bladder Calculi
			Nephrocalcinosis
		GENITOURINARY TUMORS
			Renal Cell Carcinoma
				Imaging and Treatment Approaches
				Sonographic Appearance
				Biopsy and Prognosis
				Pitfalls in Interpretation
			Urothelial Carcinoma
				Renal Tumors
				Ureteral Tumors
				Bladder Tumors
			Squamous Cell Carcinoma
			Adenocarcinoma
			Oncocytoma
			Angiomyolipoma
			Lymphoma
			Leukemia
			Metastases
			Urachal Adenocarcinoma
			Rare Neoplasms
				Kidney
				Bladder
		RENAL CYSTIC DISEASE
			Cortical Cysts
			Parapelvic Cysts
			Medullary Cysts
				Medullary Sponge Kidney
				Medullary Cystic Disease
			Polycystic Kidney Disease
			Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney
			Lithium Nephropathy
			Multilocular Cystic Nephroma
			Localized Cystic Disease
			Neoplasm-Associated Renal Cystic Disease
				Acquired Cystic Kidney Disease
				Von Hippel-Lindau Disease
				Tuberous Sclerosis
		TRAUMA
			Renal Injuries
			Ureteral Injuries
			Bladder Injuries
		VASCULAR ABNORMALITIES
			Renal Vascular Doppler Sonography
			Renal Artery Occlusion and Infarction
			Arteriovenous Fistula and Malformation
			Renal Artery Stenosis
			Renal Artery Aneurysm
			Renal Vein Thrombosis
			Ovarian Vein Thrombosis
		MEDICAL GENITOURINARY DISEASES
			Acute Tubular Necrosis
			Acute Cortical Necrosis
			Glomerulonephritis
			Acute Interstitial Nephritis
			Diabetes Mellitus
			Amyloidosis
			Endometriosis
		BLADDER OUTLET OBSTRUCTION
			Interstitial Cystitis
		NEUROGENIC BLADDER
		BLADDER DIVERTICULA
		POSTSURGICAL EVALUATION
			Nephrectomy
			Urinary Diversion
		CONTRAST ENHANCED ULTRASOUND
		CONCLUSION
		ACKNOWLEDGMENT
		REFERENCES
10 The Prostate and Transrectal Ultrasound
	10. The Prostate and Transrectal Ultrasound
		INTRODUCTION
		ANATOMY
			Zonal Anatomy
			Vascular and Neural Structures
		SONOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE
		EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES
		BENIGN CONDITIONS
			Normal Variants
			Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
			Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome
			Prostate Cysts
			Seminal Vesicles and Vas Deferens
		INFERTILITY AND TRANSRECTAL ULTRASOUND
		HEMATOSPERMIA
		PROSTATE CANCER
			Epidemiology
			Prostate-Specific Antigen and Variants
			Alternate Prostate Cancer Biomarkers
			Multiparametric Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Screening
			Clinical Staging and Histological Grading
			Therapy
			Sonographic Appearance of Prostate Cancer
				Gray-Scale Ultrasound
				Color and Power Doppler Imaging
			Multiparametric Ultrasound
				Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
				Three-Dimensional Ultrasound and TRUS/MR fusion
				Elastography
		MICRO-ULTRASOUND
		ULTRASOUND GUIDED BIOPSY
			Indications
			Preparation for Biopsy
				Antibiotic Prophylaxis
				Bowel Preparation
				Analgesia
				Anticoagulation
			Technique
			Side Effects and Complications
			Sampling
			MpMRI-TRUS Fusion Biopsy
			Transperineal and Template Biopsy
			Biopsy After Radical Prostatectomy
			Biopsy in Men With Absent Anus
		OTHER APPLICATIONS OF TRUS AND BIOPSY IN MEN AND WOMEN
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
11 The Adrenal Glands
	11. The Adrenal Glands
		ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
		SONOGRAPHIC IMAGING AND SCANNING TECHNIQUE
		BENIGN ADRENAL MASSES
			Adrenal Adenomas
			Myelolipomas
			Pheochromocytomas
			Adrenal Cysts
			Adrenal Hemorrhage
			Infectious and Inflammatory Masses
		MALIGNANT ADRENAL MASSES
			Adrenocortical Carcinomas
			Metastases
			Lymphoma
		RARE ADRENAL MASSES
		MANAGEMENT OF ADRENAL LESIONS
		INTERVENTIONS
			Ultrasound-Guided Biopsy and Interventions
			Endoscopic Ultrasound
			Intraoperative Ultrasound
		CONCLUSION
		ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
		REFERENCES
12 Retroperitoneal Sonography
	12. Retroperitoneal Sonography
		INTRODUCTION
		ATHEROSCLEROSIS
			Association of Atherosclerosis and Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
		ABDOMINAL AORTIC ANEURYSM
			Normal Anatomy
			Definition
			Mortality
			Pathophysiology
			Natural History and Medical Therapy
			Screening
				Recent Studies
				Ultrasound Approach
			Surveillance
				Sonographic Technique
			Computed Tomography
			False-Positive/False-Negative Results
			Ultrasound Versus Computed Tomography for Evaluation of Rupture
			Treatment Planning
			Postoperative Ultrasound Assessment
		OTHER ENTITIES CAUSING ABDOMINAL AORTIC DILATION
			Inflammatory Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
			Arteriomegaly and Aortic Ectasia
			Penetrating Ulcer and Acute Aortic Syndromes
			Pseudoaneurysm
		STENOTIC DISEASE OF THE ABDOMINAL AORTA
		DISEASES OF ABDOMINAL AORTA BRANCHES
			Renal Arteries
				Anatomy
				Renal Artery Stenosis and Renovascular Hypertension
					Causes of Renal Artery Stenosis
				Renal Artery Duplex Doppler Sonography
					Doppler Interpretation
					False-Positive/False-Negative Results
				Renal Artery Aneurysm
			Mesenteric Arteries
				Anatomy
				Mesenteric Ischemia
					Acute Ischemia
					Chronic Ischemia
				Median Arcuate Ligament Syndrome
				Mesenteric Artery Duplex Doppler Sonography
					Mesenteric Duplex Interpretation
					Iliac Veins and Inferior Vena Cava
				Anatomy
				Anatomic Variants
				Thrombosis
				Nutcracker Syndrome
				Pelvic Congestion Syndrome/Pelvic Venous Insufficiency
				Budd-Chiari Syndrome
				Inferior Vena Cava Neoplasms
				Other Inferior Vena Cava Findings
		NONVASCULAR DISEASES OF THE RETROPERITONEUM
			Solid Masses
			Retroperitoneal Fibrosis
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
13 Hernias of the Groin and Anterior Abdominal Wall
	13. Dynamic Ultrasound of Hernias of the Groin and Anterior Abdominal Wall
		TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS
		THE REPORT FOR DYNAMIC ULTRASOUND OF GROIN HERNIAS
		HERNIA CONTENTS
		DYNAMIC MANEUVERS
		KEY SONOGRAPHIC LANDMARKS
		INGUINAL AND INGUINAL REGION HERNIAS
			Indirect Inguinal Hernias
			Direct Inguinal Hernias
			Femoral Hernias
			Spigelian Hernias
			Sports Hernias
		ABDOMINAL WALL OR VENTRAL HERNIAS
			Linea Alba Hernias
			Umbilical Hernias
			Paraumbilical or Periumbilical Hernias
			Incisional Hernias
			Multiple Hernias
		ADDITIONAL ISSUES REGARDING HERNIAS
			Recurrent Groin Hernias
			Hernia Complications
			Entities That Simulate Groin Hernias
			Entities That Simulate Anterior Abdominal Wall Hernias
		CONCLUSION
		References
14 The Peritoneum
	14. The Peritoneum
		PERITONEUM, OMENTUM, AND MESENTERY
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
		ASCITES
		PERITONEAL INCLUSION CYSTS
		MESENTERIC CYSTS
		PERITONEAL TUMORS
			Peritoneal Carcinomatosis
			Primary Tumors of Peritoneum
			Pseudomyxoma Peritonei
		PERITONITIS
			Infectious Peritonitis
				Abscess
				Tuberculous Peritonitis
			Noninfectious Peritonitis
				Chemical Peritonitis
				Noninfectious Granulomatous Peritonitis
				Sclerosing Peritonitis
		SEGMENTAL OMENTAL INFARCTION
		EPIPLOIC APPENDAGITIS
		MESENTERIC PANNICULITIS
		PSEUDOLIPOMA OF THE GLISSON CAPSULE
		ENDOMETRIOSIS
		LEIOMYOMATOSIS PERITONEALIS DISSEMINATA
		PNEUMOPERITONEUM
		CONCLUSION
		Acknowledgment
		References
15 Biopsy of Chest, Abdomen, and Pelvis
	15. Ultrasound-Guided Biopsy of Chest, Abdomen, and Pelvis
		INTRODUCTION
			Periprocedural Antithrombotic Management
			Imaging Methods
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography
			Pre-Procedure Considerations and Time-Out
		PERCUTANEOUS NEEDLE BIOPSY
			Indications and Contraindications
			Imaging Methods
			Needle Selection
			Biopsy Procedure
			Needle Visualization
			Specific Anatomic Applications
				Liver
				Pancreas
				Kidney
				Adrenal Gland
				Spleen
				Lung
			Complications
		ULTRASOUND-GUIDED DRAINAGE
			Indications and Contraindications
			Catheter Selection
			Patient Preparation
			Diagnostic Aspiration
			Catheter Placement
			Drainage Procedure
			Follow-Up Care
			Catheter Removal
			Abdominal and Pelvic Abscesses: General
			Specific Anatomic Applications
				Liver
				Biliary Tract
				Pancreas
				Spleen
				Kidney
		PERCUTANEOUS CYST MANAGEMENT
			Renal Cyst
			Liver Cyst
			Ovarian Cyst
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
16 Solid-Organ Transplantation
	16. Solid-Organ Transplantation
		LIVER TRANSPLANTATION
			Surgical Technique
			Normal Liver Transplant Ultrasound
			Arterial Complications
				Hepatic Artery Thrombosis
				Hepatic Artery Stenosis
				Hepatic Artery Pseudoaneurysms
				Arteriovenous Fistulas
			Portal Vein Complications
				Portal Vein Thrombosis
				Portal Vein Stenosis
				Portal Vein Steal
			Venous Outflow (Inferior Vena Cava/Hepatic Vein) Complications
			Biliary Complications
				Biliary Strictures
				Biliary Leaks
				Recurrent Sclerosing Cholangitis
				Biliary Sludge and Stones
				Dysfunction of the Sphincter of Oddi
			Parenchymal Abnormalities
				Rejection
				Infarction
			Intrahepatic Abscess
				Intrahepatic Solid Masses
			Extrahepatic Fluid Collections
		KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION
			Surgical Technique
			Normal Kidney Transplant Ultrasound
				Grayscale Assessment
				Doppler Assessment
			Arterial Complications
				Renal Artery Thrombosis
				Renal Artery Stenosis
				Arteriovenous Fistula
				Pseudoaneurysm
			Venous Complications
				Venous Stenosis
			Urinary Obstruction
			Parenchymal Abnormalities
				Rejection
				Interstitial Fibrosis and Tubular Atrophy
				Acute Tubular Injury
				Infection
				Cortical Necrosis
				Solid Renal Masses
			Extrarenal Fluid Collections
				Hematoma
				Urinoma
				Lymphocele
				Abscess
		PANCREAS TRANSPLANTATION
			Surgical Technique
			Normal Pancreas Transplant Ultrasound
			Vascular Complications
				Thrombosis
			Arteriovenous Fistula
			Pseudoaneurysm
			Parenchymal Abnormalities
			Fluid Collections
		REFERENCES
17 Thyroid Gland and Cervical Lymph Node Sonography
	III - THREE Small Parts, Carotid Artery, and Peripheral Vessel Sonography
		17. Thyroid Gland and Cervical Lymph Node Sonography
			INTRODUCTION
			ULTRASOUND TECHNIQUE AND INSTRUMENTATION
				Transducer Selection and Technique
				Patient Positioning and Other Practical Considerations
				Newer Ultrasound Techniques
				Role of Other Imaging Modalities
			THYROID EMBRYOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND ANATOMY
				Embryology
				Thyroid Physiology
				Normal Thyroid Gland Anatomy, Ultrasound Appearance, and Size
			CONGENITAL ABNORMALITIES
				Pyramidal Lobe
				Tubercle of Zuckerkandl and Other Developmental Abnormalities
				Thyroglossal Duct Cysts
			DIFFUSE THYROID DISEASE
				Infectious and Inflammatory Conditions
				Autoimmune Conditions
				Infiltrative Disease in Systemic Conditions
			BENIGN FOCAL THYROID DISEASE
				Hyperplasia
				Adenoma and Variants
				Abscess
				Intrathyroidal Parathyroid Adenoma
				Ectopic Thymus
			MALIGNANT FOCAL THYROID DISEASE
				Papillary Carcinoma of the Thyroid
					Classical Variant Papillary Carcinoma of the Thyroid
					Follicular Variant Papillary Carcinoma of the Thyroid
					Other Unusual Papillary Carcinoma of the Thyroid Variants
				Noninvasive Follicular Thyroid Neoplasms With Papillary-Like Features
				Follicular Carcinoma
				Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma
				Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma
				Primary Thyroid Lymphoma
				Thyroid Metastases
				CASTLE Tumors
			ULTRASOUND ASSESSMENT OF THYROID NODULES
				Does a Nodule Correspond to a Palpable Abnormality or a Lesion on Another Imaging Modality?
				What Is a Nodule\'s Malignancy Risk Based on Its Ultrasound Appearance?
				Ultrasound-Based Risk Stratification: Signs of Malignancy
					Composition
					Echogenicity
					Shape
					Margin
					Echogenic Foci
				Size, Measurement, and Growth
				Classic Benign Appearances
			RISK STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS
				ATA Guidelines and ACR TI-RADS: Similarities and Differences
				Lymph Node Evaluation
				Reporting Considerations
				Other Factors Related to Malignancy Risk
				Doppler Imaging and Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
				Future of Thyroid Nodule Risk Stratification
			THYROID NODULE BIOPSY
				Fine-Needle Aspiration
				Core-Needle Biopsy
				Bethesda Classification
				Mutations in Thyroid Cancer and Molecular Testing
			ULTRASOUND EVALUATION OF CERVICAL LYMPH NODES
				Technique and Anatomic Classification
				Normal and Abnormal Lymph Nodes
				Predictive Value of Nodal Assessment in Thyroid Cancer
				Lymphadenopathy From Other Cancers
				Other Ultrasound Techniques
			ROLE OF ULTRASOUND FOLLOWING THYROID SURGERY
				Indications and Technique
				The Thyroid Bed
			ROLE OF ULTRASOUND IN TREATING THYROID NODULES
				Ethanol Ablation
				Thermal Ablation
			CONCLUSION
			ACKNOWLEDGMENT
			REFERENCES
18 Other Glands in the Head and Neck
	18. Other Glands in the Head and Neck
		PARATHYROID EMBRYOLOGY AND ANATOMY
			Primary Hyperparathyroidism
				Prevalence
				Diagnosis
				Pathology
				Treatment
			Sonographic Appearance
				Shape
				Echogenicity and Internal Architecture
				Vascularity
				Size
				Multiple Gland Disease
				Carcinoma
			Adenoma Localization
				Sonographic Examination and Typical Locations
				Ectopic Locations
					Retrotracheal/Retroesophageal Adenoma
					Mediastinal Adenoma
					Intrathyroid Parathyroid Adenoma
					Carotid Sheath/Undescended Adenoma
			Persistent or Recurrent Hyperparathyroidism
			Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
			Pitfalls in Interpretation
				False-Positive Examination
				False-Negative Examination
			Accuracy in Imaging
				Ultrasound
				Other Modalities
				Importance of Imaging in Primary Hyperparathyroidism
			Intraoperative Sonography
			Percutaneous Biopsy
		SALIVARY GLANDS
			Salivary Gland Embryology and Anatomy
			Sonographic Examination and Sonographic Appearance
			Obstructive Disease
				Sialadenitis
				Sialolithiasis
				Ranula
			Acute and Chronic Sialadenitis
				Infectious Sialadenitis
			Noninfectious Causes of Sialadenitis
				Sjögren Disease
				IgG4-related Salivary Disease
				Juvenile Recurrent Parotitis
			Salivary Gland Tumors
				Primary Tumors of the Salivary Glands
				Salivary Lymphoma
				Parotid Metastases
		CONCLUSION
		ACKNOWLEDGMENT
		REFERENCES
19 The Breast
	19. The Breast
		APPLICATIONS OF BREAST ULTRASOUND
		BREAST ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
		SONOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
			Patient Position
			Annotation
			Documentation of Lesions
			Split-Screen Imaging
			Special Sonographic Techniques
				Doppler Sonography
				Harmonic Imaging and Spatial Compounding
				Elastography
				Three-Dimensional Ultrasound
				Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
				Artificial Intelligence and Ultrasound
		REPORTING
		SONOGRAPHIC FINDINGS
			Normal Tissues and Variations
			Cysts and Cystic Masses
				Simple Cysts
				Complicated Cysts
				Complex Cystic and Solid Masses
					Papillary Lesions
					Inflammation and Infection
			Malignant Solid Masses
			Morphologic Features of Cancer
				Suspicious for Invasive Malignancy
				Suspicious for Ductal Carcinoma In Situ
				Either Invasive or Ductal Carcinoma In Situ
				Features Associated With Ductal Carcinoma In Situ
				Indistinct Margins
				Spiculation or Thick Echogenic Rim
				Angular Margins
				Microlobulations
				Not Parallel (Not Taller-Than-Wide) Orientation
				Duct Extension
				Acoustic Shadowing
				Hypoechogenicity
				Calcifications
				Associated Features
			Benign Solid Masses
				Hyperechoic Tissue
				Parallel (Wider-Than-Tall) Orientation
				Thin Echogenic Capsule
		DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND INDICATIONS
			Symptomatic Breast
				Breast Pain
				Palpable Abnormality
				Nipple Discharge
			Sonographic Assessment After Mammography
				Size Correlation
				Shape Correlation
				Location or Position Correlation
				Surrounding Tissue Density Correlation
				Sonographic-Mammographic Confirmation
		NICHE APPLICATIONS FOR BREAST ULTRASOUND
			Infection
			Implants
			Breast Cancer Staging
			Sonographic-Magnetic Resonance Imaging Correlation
		ULTRASOUND-GUIDED INTERVENTION
		CONCLUSION
		Acknowledgment
		REFERENCES
20 The Scrotum
	20. The Scrotum
		INTRODUCTION
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
		NORMAL ANATOMY
		INTRATESTICULAR SCROTAL MASSES
			MALIGNANT TUMORS
				Germ Cell Tumors
					Seminoma
					Nonseminomatous Germ Cell Tumors
					Regressed Germ Cell Tumor
				Non-Germ Cell Tumors
					Sex Cord-Stromal Tumors
			Testicular Metastases
				Lymphoma and Leukemia
				Extramedullary Myeloma
				Metastatic Disease
			Benign Intratesticular Lesions
				Cysts
				Tubular Ectasia of Rete Testis
				Cystic Dysplasia
				Epidermoid Cysts
				Abscess
				Segmental Infarction
				Adrenal Rests
				Splenogonadal Fusion
				Calcifications
		EXTRATESTICULAR PATHOLOGIC LESIONS
			Tunica Vaginalis
				Hydrocele, Hematocele, and Pyocele
			Paratesticular Masses
				Hernia
				Calculi
				Varicocele
				Fibrous Pseudotumor
				Polyorchidism
			Epididymal Lesions
				Cystic Lesions
				Tumors
				Sperm Granuloma
				Postvasectomy Changes in the Epididymis
				Chronic Epididymitis
				Sarcoidosis
		ACUTE SCROTAL PAIN
			Torsion
			Epididymitis and Epididymo-Orchitis
			Fournier Gangrene
		TRAUMA
		CRYPTORCHIDISM
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
21 Overview of Musculoskeletal Sonography
	21. Overview of Musculoskeletal Sonography-Techniques and Applications
		INTRODUCTION
			Doppler Imaging
			Elastography
			Extended Field-of-View Imaging
		MUSCLES
		TENDONS
		LIGAMENTS
		NERVES
		JOINT ASSESSMENT
		SOFT TISSUE MASSES
		FOREIGN BODIES
		SOFT TISSUE INFECTION
		CONCLUSION
		References
22 The Shoulder
	22. The Shoulder
		CLINICAL PERSPECTIVE
		SHOULDER ANATOMY
		SCAN TECHNIQUE
			Biceps Tendon Evaluation
			Subscapularis Tendon Evaluation
			Supraspinatus Evaluation
			Infraspinatus, Teres Minor, and Posterior Shoulder Evaluation
			Rotator Cuff Musculature Evaluation
		ROTATOR CUFF DEGENERATION AND TEARS
			Background
			Tendinosis
			Full-Thickness Rotator Cuff Tears
			Partial-Thickness Rotator Cuff Tears
			Postsurgical Rotator Cuff
			Muscle Atrophy
			Subacromial-Subdeltoid Bursa
			Calcific Tendinitis
		LONG HEAD BICEPS TENDON PATHOLOGY
		ARTHROPATHY
			Degenerative
			Inflammatory
		PITFALLS IN SHOULDER ULTRASOUND
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
23 Musculoskeletal Interventions
	23. Musculoskeletal Interventions
		TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
		INJECTION TECHNIQUE
		INJECTION MATERIALS
		INJECTION OF JOINTS
		SUPERFICIAL PERITENDINOUS AND PERIARTICULAR INJECTIONS
			Foot and Ankle
			Hand and Wrist
		INJECTION OF DEEP TENDONS
			Biceps Tendon
			Iliopsoas Tendon
			Abductor and Hamstring Tendons
		BURSAL, GANGLION CYST, AND PARALABRAL INJECTIONS
			Calcific Tendinitis
		INTRATENDINOUS INJECTIONS: PERCUTANEOUS TENOTOMY
		PERINEURAL INJECTIONS
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
24 The Extracranial Cerebral Vessels
	24. The Extracranial Cerebral Vessels
		INTRODUCTION: INDICATIONS FOR CAROTID ULTRASOUND EXAMINATION
		CAROTID ARTERY ANATOMY
		CAROTID ULTRASOUND EXAMINATION
		CAROTID ULTRASOUND INTERPRETATION
			Visual Inspection of Gray-Scale Images
				Vessel Wall Thickness and Intima-Media Thickening
				Plaque Characterization
				Ultrasound Plaque Classification System
				Plaque Ulceration
				Gray-Scale Evaluation of Stenosis
			Doppler Spectral Analysis
				Standard Examination
				Spectral Broadening
				Pitfalls in Interpretation
				High-Velocity Blood Flow Patterns
			Color and Power Doppler Ultrasound
				Optimal Settings for Low-Flow Vessel Evaluation
				Pitfalls and Adjustments
			Internal Carotid Artery Occlusion
			Follow-Up of Stenosis
			Preoperative Strategies for Patients With Carotid Artery Disease
			Postoperative Ultrasound
				Carotid Artery Stents and Revascularization
				Grading Carotid Intrastent Restenosis
		NONATHEROSCLEROTIC CAROTID DISEASE
			Pulsatile Neck Masses in the Carotid Region
		TRANSCRANIAL DOPPLER SONOGRAPHY
		VERTEBRAL ARTERY
			Anatomy
			Sonographic Technique and Normal Examination
			Subclavian Steal
			Stenosis and Occlusion
		INTERNAL JUGULAR VEINS
			Sonographic Technique
			Thrombosis
		CONCLUSION
		ACKNOWLEDGMENT
		REFERENCES
25 Peripheral Arteries
	25. Peripheral Arteries
		SONOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE
		SPECTRAL DOPPLER WAVEFORM EVALUATION
			Focal Abnormality
			Diffuse Abnormality
		LOWER EXTREMITY ARTERIES
			Normal Anatomy
			Ultrasound Examination and Imaging Protocol
			Peripheral Arterial Occlusion
			Peripheral Arterial Stenosis
			Functional Popliteal Artery Entrapment Syndrome
			Aneurysm
			Pseudoaneurysm
			Arteriovenous Fistula
			Lower Extremity Vein Bypass Grafts
		UPPER EXTREMITY ARTERIES
			Normal Anatomy
			Ultrasound Examination and Imaging Protocol
			Arterial Occlusion, Aneurysm, and Pseudoaneurysm
			Arterial Stenosis
			Subclavian Stenosis
			Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
			Radial Artery Evaluation for Coronary Bypass Graft
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
26 Peripheral Veins
	26. Peripheral Veins
		INTRODUCTION
		PERIPHERAL VEINS
			Sonographic Examination Technique
			Lower Extremity Veins
				Normal Anatomy
					Deep Venous System
					Superficial Venous System
				Ultrasound Examination
					Lower Extremity Imaging Protocol
				Acute Deep Venous Thrombosis
				Chronic Postthrombotic Change and Acute Deep Venous Thrombosis on Chronic Postthrombotic Change
				Potential Pitfalls
				Complete Venous Doppler Versus More Limited Examinations
				Recommendations for Deep Venous Thrombosis Follow-Up
				Venous Insufficiency
				Venous Mapping
			Upper Extremity Veins
				Normal Anatomy
				Ultrasound Examination
				Upper Extremity Imaging Protocol
				Upper Extremity Acute Deep Venous Thrombosis
				Differentiation of Acute From Chronic Post-thrombotic Change
				Potential Pitfalls
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
27 Hemodialysis
	27. Hemodialysis
		INTRODUCTION
		SONOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE FOR HEMODIALYSIS ACCESS EVALUATION
			Vascular Mapping Imaging Protocol Before Hemodialysis Access
				Upper Extremity Imaging Protocol
					Arterial Evaluation
					Venous Evaluation
					Additional Examination for pAVF Planning
				Lower Extremity
					Thigh Imaging Protocol
			Vascular Imaging After Hemodialysis Access Placement
				AVF Imaging Protocol
				Arteriovenous Fistula Maturation Evaluation
				Arteriovenous Graft Imaging Protocol
		ARTERIOVENOUS FISTULA AND GRAFT COMPLICATIONS
			Arteriovenous Fistula and Graft Stenosis
			Arterial Steal
			Arm and Leg Swelling With Arteriovenous Fistula or Graft
			Palpable Focal Masses Near Arteriovenous Fistula and Graft
			Arteriovenous Fistula and Graft Thrombosis
			Hematoma, Abscess, and Infected Graft
			Aneurysm and Pseudoaneurysm
		CONCLUSION
		References
28 The Uterus
	FOUR - Gynecologic Sonography
		28. The Uterus
			INTRODUCTION, ANATOMY, AND SCANNING TECHNIQUES
			NORMAL UTERINE FINDINGS
			MÜLLERIAN DUCT ANOMALIES
				Embryology
			ABNORMALITIES OF THE MYOMETRIUM
				Leiomyomas
				Leiomyosarcoma
				Adenomyosis
			ABNORMALITIES OF THE CERVIX
			ABNORMALITIES OF THE ENDOMETRIUM
				Premenopausal Bleeding
				Postmenopausal Endometrium
					Hormone Use
				Postmenopausal Bleeding
				The Obstructed Uterus-Hydrometrocolpos and Hematometrocolpos
				Endometrial Hyperplasia
				Endometrial Polyps
				Endometrial Carcinoma
				Endometrial Sarcoma
				Endometrial Adhesions
				Endometrial Ablation
			INFERTILITY AND RECURRENT MISCARRIAGE
			SONOGRAPHY OF CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICES
				Intrauterine Contraceptive Devices
				Tubal Occlusion Devices
			POSTPARTUM FINDINGS
				Normal Findings
				Bleeding Postpartum
				Retained Products of Conception
				Endometritis
				Subinvolution of the Placental Site
				Findings After Cesarean Section
			CONCLUSION
			Acknowledgment
			REFERENCES
29 Adnexal Sonography
	29. Adnexal Sonography
		BACKGROUND
			Normal Anatomy
			Ultrasound Technique
			Sonographic Appearance
		NON-NEOPLASTIC CONDITIONS
			Punctate Echogenic Foci
			Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome
			Endometriosis
			Ovarian Remnant Syndrome
			Adnexal Torsion
			Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
			Postpartum Ovarian Vein Thrombosis
			Pelvic Venous Congestion Syndrome
		NON-NEOPLASTIC MASSES
			Physiologic Cyst
			Hemorrhagic Ovarian Cyst
			Endometrioma
			Postmenopausal Non-Neoplastic Adnexal Cyst
			Paraovarian and Paratubal Cysts
			Peritoneal Inclusion Cyst
			Hydrosalpinx
			Pregnancy-Associated Ovarian Abnormalities
			Postoperative Collections
		NEOPLASMS
			Overview
			Epithelial Cell Neoplasms
				Serous Cystadenoma and Cystadenofibromas
				Serous Borderline Tumor and Low-Grade Serous Cystadenocarcinoma
				High-Grade Serous Cystadenocarcinoma
				Mucinous Cystadenoma and Cystadenocarcinoma
				Endometrioid Carcinoma and Clear Cell Carcinoma
				Brenner Tumor
			Germ Cell Neoplasms
				Cystic Teratoma
				Dysgerminoma
				Yolk Sac Tumor
			Sex Cord Stromal Neoplasms
				Granulosa Cell Tumor
				Fibroma, Fibrothecoma, and Thecoma
				Sertoli-Leydig Cell Tumor
			Metastatic Neoplasms
			Non-Ovarian Adnexal Neoplasms
		DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH TO THE ADNEXAL MASS
		REFERENCES
30 Overview of Obstetric Imaging
	FIVE - Obstetric Sonography
		30. Overview of Obstetric Imaging
			INTRODUCTION
			TRAINING, PERSONNEL, AND EQUIPMENT
			ULTRASOUND PRACTICE PARAMETERS
				First Trimester
				Second and Third Trimesters
			ROUTINE ULTRASOUND SCREENING
				Estimation of Gestational Age
				Identification of Twin/Multiple Pregnancies
				Maternal Anatomy: Ovaries
				Maternal Anatomy: Uterus
					Fibroids
					Post-Cesarean Section Uterus
					Entrapped Uterus
					Uterine Synechia
					Congenital Uterine Anomalies
				Screening and Perinatal Outcomes
				Fetal Malformations: Diagnostic Accuracy
				Three-Dimensional Ultrasound
				Prudent Use of Ultrasound
			MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
			CONCLUSION
			REFERENCES
31 The First Trimester
	31. The First Trimester
		INTRODUCTION
		MATERNAL PHYSIOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY
		ULTRASOUND OF THE NORMAL EARLY FIRST TRIMESTER
			Gestational Sac
			Yolk Sac
			Embryo and Amnion
			Gestational Age by Measurements and Embryo Morphology
			Corpus Luteum and hCG Levels
			Twin Gestation
		PREGNANCY FAILURE
			Diagnostic of Early Pregnancy Loss
			Concerning for Early Pregnancy Loss
				Cardiac Activity
				Gestational Sac Size
				Gestational Sac Appearance and Location
				Amnion-Enlarged or Empty
				Yolk Sac Size and Appearance
				Subchorionic Hematoma
		INCOMPLETE EARLY PREGNANCY LOSS/RETAINED PRODUCTS OF CONCEPTION
		ECTOPIC PREGNANCY
			Clinical Findings
			Sonographic Findings
			Hemoperitoneum
			Heterotopic Pregnancy
			Other Implantation Sites
			Pregnancy of Unknown Location
			Treatment of Ectopic Pregnancy
			First-Trimester Anomalies
		GESTATIONAL TROPHOBLASTIC DISEASE
			Complete Molar Pregnancy
			Partial Molar Pregnancy
			Coexistent Hydatidiform Mole and Normal Embryo
			Persistent Trophoblastic Neoplasia
		CONCLUSION
		References
32 Chromosomal Abnormality
	32. Chromosomal Abnormality
		INTRODUCTION
		PRENATAL SCREENING FOR ANEUPLOIDY
			Screening Test in Any Trimester of Pregnancy
				Cell-Free Deoxyribonucleic Acid Screening
			First Trimester Screening
				Ultrasound Only With Nuchal Translucency
				Ultrasound and Serum Biochemical Markers
			Second Trimester Screening
				Combined Screening
					Combined First Trimester Screening
					Integrated and Serum Integrated Screening
					Sequential and Contingent Screening
		FIRST TRIMESTER ULTRASOUND
			Standardization of Nuchal Translucency Measurement Technique
			Nuchal Translucency and Other Aneuploidies
			Cystic Hygroma
			Nasal Bone
			Other Markers of Aneuploidy
				Reversed Flow in Ductus Venosus
				Tricuspid Regurgitation
				Thickened Nuchal Translucency With Normal Karyotype
		SECOND TRIMESTER ULTRASOUND
			Nuchal Fold
			Facial Profile (Nasal Bone)
			Femur Length
			Humerus Length
			Urinary Tract Dilation
			Echogenic Bowel
			Echogenic Intracardiac Focus
			Structural Anomalies
			Adjunct Features of Trisomy 21
			Combined Ultrasound Markers
		ULTRASOUND FETAURES IN OTHER ANEUPLOIDIES
			Trisomy 18 (Edwards Syndrome)
				Choroid Plexus Cyst
			Trisomy 13 (Patau Syndrome)
				Triploidy
			Monosomy X (Turner Syndrome)
		PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTING FOR ANEUPLOIDY
			First Trimester Diagnostic Testing-Chorionic Villus Sampling
				Second and Third Trimester Diagnostic Testing-Amniocentesis
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
33 Multifetal Pregnancy
	33. Multifetal Pregnancy
		ZYGOSITY/CHORIONICITY
		DETERMINATION OF CHORIONICITY
		GENERAL ISSUES
		LOSS OF A TWIN
		COMPLICATIONS OF MONOCHORIONICITY
			Twin-Twin Transfusion Syndrome
			Twin Anemia Polycythemia Sequence
			Twin Reversed Arterial Perfusion Sequence
		MONOAMNIOTIC TWINS
		CONJOINED TWINS
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
34 Fetal Face and Neck Sonography
	34. Fetal Face and Neck Sonography
		EMBRYOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
			Face
			Neck
		SONOGRAPHY OF THE NORMAL FETAL FACE
		ABNORMALITIES OF THE HEAD
			Abnormal Size
			Abnormal Shape
				Craniosynostosis
				Wormian Bones
			Forehead Abnormalities
				Encephaloceles
		ORBIT ABNORMALITIES
			Hypotelorism
			Hypertelorism
			Microphthalmia and Anophthalmia
			Coloboma
			Dacryocystocele
			Congenital Cataracts
		EAR ABNORMALITIES
		MIDFACE ABNORMALITIES
			Hypoplasia
			Absent Nasal Bone
			Other Nasal Abnormalities
			Cleft Lip and Palate
				Unilateral Cleft Lip/Palate
				Bilateral Cleft Lip/Palate
				Median Cleft Lip/Palate
				Unusual Facial (Tessier) Clefts
				Isolated Cleft of Secondary Palate
		LOWER FACE ABNORMALITIES
			Macroglossia and Oral Masses
			Micrognathia and Retrognathia
		SOFT TISSUE TUMORS
		NECK ABNORMALITIES
			Nuchal Translucency and Thickening
			Lymphatic Malformation
			Cervical Teratoma
			Thyromegaly and Goiter
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
35 The Fetal Brain
	35. The Fetal Brain
		DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY
			Embryology
			Sonographic Anatomy
			Incremental Benefit of MRI
			Variants (Usually Normal)
				Choroid Plexus Cysts
				Blake Pouch ``Cyst\'\'
				Cavum Veli Interpositi
		VENTRICULOMEGALY AND HYDROCEPHALUS
			Pathogenesis of Ventriculomegaly
			Ultrasound Evaluation of Ventriculomegaly
			Additional Studies and Prognosis
		SPECIFIC ABNORMALITIES
		ERRORS OF DORSAL INDUCTION
			Anencephaly and Exencephaly
			Cephalocele and Encephalocele
			Ciliopathies
			Joubert Syndrome
			Meckel-Gruber Syndrome
			Amniotic Band Sequence and Limb-Body Wall Complex
			Cranial Changes in Spina Bifida
		ERRORS OF VENTRAL INDUCTION
			Holoprosencephaly
			Posterior Fossa and Cerebellum
				Dandy-Walker Malformation
				Vermis Hypoplasia or Dysplasia
				Mega-Cisterna Magna
				Rhombencephalosynapsis
				Other Posterior Fossa Abnormalities
			Arachnoid Cysts
			Malformations of Cortical Development
				Microcephaly
				Macrocephaly and Megalencephaly
				Hemimegalencephaly
				Lissencephaly
				Focal Cortical Changes
				Tuberous sclerosis
				Agenesis of Corpus Callosum and Dysgenesis of Corpus Callosum
				Absence of Septi Pellucidi and Septo-optic Dysplasia
		INTRACRANIAL CALCIFICATIONS
		INFECTIONS
		VASCULAR MALFORMATIONS
			Thrombosis of Dural Sinuses
			Hemorrhagic Lesions
			Ischemic Lesions
			Hydranencephaly
		TUMORS
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
36 The Fetal Spine
	36. The Fetal Spine
		INTRODUCTION
		DEVELOPMENT OF THE FETAL SPINE
			Spinal Embryogenesis
			Ossification of the Fetal Spine
			Spinal Cord Position
		SCANNING TECHNIQUES
			Three-Dimensional Ultrasound
		SPINA BIFIDA
			Pathogenesis and Pathology
			Role of Nutrition in Neural Tube Defects
				Folic Acid in Neural Tube Defects
				Additional Environmental and Nutritional Risk Factors
			Maternal Serum Alpha-Fetoprotein
			Sonographic Findings in the Spine
			Associated Cranial Findings
			Additional Supratentorial Findings of Neural Tube Defects
			Associated Noncranial Abnormalities
			Prognosis
			Fetal Surgery for Open Spina Bifida
		CLOSED NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS
			Lipomyelomeningocele and Lipomyeloschisis
			Myelocystocele
			Split Cord Malformation
		SCOLIOSIS AND KYPHOSIS
		SACRAL AGENESIS AND CAUDAL REGRESSION
		SIRENOMELIA
		SACROCOCCYGEAL TERATOMA
		PRESACRAL FETAL MASSES
		ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
		REFERENCES
37 The Fetal Chest
	37. The Fetal Chest
		DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURES IN THE CHEST
			Pulmonary Development
			Normal Sonographic Features of the Fetal Chest
			Normal Diaphragm
			Normal Thymus
		PULMONARY HYPOPLASIA, APLASIA, AND AGENESIS
		CONGENITAL PULMONARY AIRWAY MALFORMATION SPECTRUM
			Congenital Pulmonary Airway Malformation
			Bronchopulmonary Sequestration
			Congenital Lobar Overinflation
		PLEUROPULMONARY BLASTOMA
		CONGENITAL HIGH AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION
		BRONCHOGENIC CYST
		NEURENTERIC CYST
		PLEURAL EFFUSION
		PERICARDIAL EFFUSION
		PULMONARY LYMPHANGIECTASIA
		CONGENITAL DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIA
			Other Hernias and Eventration
			Associated Anomalies
			Morbidity and Mortality
			In Utero Therapy
		Conclusion
		References
38 Fetal Echocardiography
	38. Fetal Echocardiography
		INTRODUCTION
		NORMAL FETAL CARDIAC ANATOMY AND SCANNING TECHNIQUES
		STRUCTURAL ANOMALIES
			Atrial Septal Defect
			Ventricular Septal Defect
			Atrioventricular Septal Defect
			Ebstein Anomaly
			Hypoplastic Right Ventricle
			Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome
			Univentricular Heart
			Tetralogy of Fallot
			Persistent Truncus Arteriosus
			Double-Outlet Right Ventricle
			Transposition of Great Arteries
			Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return
			Coarctation of Aorta
			Aortic Stenosis
			Pulmonic Stenosis
			Cardiosplenic Syndromes (Heterotaxy)
			Cardiac Tumors
			Cardiomyopathy
			Ectopia Cordis
		ARRHYTHMIAS
			Premature Atrial and Ventricular Contractions
			Tachycardia
			Bradycardia
			Congenital Heart Block
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
39 The Fetal Gastrointestinal Tract and Abdominal Wall
	39. The Fetal Gastrointestinal Tract and Abdominal Wall
		THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
			Embryology of the Digestive Tube
			Esophagus
				Esophageal Atresia
			Stomach
				Small or Absent Fetal Stomach
				Dilated Fetal Stomach
				Midline or Right-Sided Stomach
				Intraluminal Gastric Masses
			Small Bowel and Colon
				Duodenal Obstruction
				Jejunal and Ileal Obstruction
				Meconium Ileus
				Anorectal Malformations
				Cloacal Malformation
				Hirschsprung Disease
				Megacystis Microcolon Intestinal Hypoperistalsis Syndrome
				Abdominopelvic Cysts
				Enteric Duplication Cysts
				Meconium Peritonitis and Pseudocyst
				Echogenic Bowel
			Liver
				Hepatomegaly
				Hepatic Calcifications
				Hepatic Cysts and Masses
			Gallbladder and Biliary System
				Nonvisualization of the Gallbladder
				Fetal Gallstones
				Choledochal Cyst
			Pancreas
				Annular Pancreas
				Pancreatic Cysts
			Spleen
				Splenomegaly
				Splenic Cysts
		ABDOMINAL WALL
			Embryology
			Gastroschisis
			Omphalocele
			Bladder Exstrophy
			Cloacal Exstrophy
			Other Complex Body Wall Defects
			Pentalogy of Cantrell
			Body Stalk Anomaly
			Amniotic Band Syndrome
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
40 The Fetal Urogenital Tract
	40. The Fetal Urogenital Tract
		NORMAL URINARY TRACT
			Embryology
			Sonographic Appearance
			Amniotic Fluid Assessment
		URINARY TRACT ABNORMALITIES
			Renal Agenesis
				Bilateral Renal Agenesis
				Unilateral Renal Agenesis
			Renal Ectopia
			Horseshoe Kidney
			Renal Cystic Disease
				Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney
				Obstructive Cystic Renal Dysplasia
				Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease
				Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease
				Syndromes Associated With Renal Cystic Disease
				Hyperechogenic Kidneys
			Renal Neoplasms
			Adrenal Mass
			Upper Urinary Tract Dilation
				Hydronephrosis, Pelviectasis, and Renal Pelvic Diameter
				Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction
				Ureterovesical Junction Obstruction and Primary Megaureter
				Duplication Anomalies
				Vesicoureteral Reflux
			LOWER URINARY TRACT OBSTRUCTION
				Megacystis
			In Utero Intervention: Fetal Vesicoamniotic Shunting and Cystoscopy
			Non-Visualized Bladder
			Bladder Exstrophy
			Cloacal Anomalies
		THE GENITAL TRACT
			Normal Genitalia
			Abnormal Genitalia
			Hydrocolpos
			Ovarian Cysts
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
41 The Fetal Musculoskeletal System
	41. The Fetal Musculoskeletal System
		INTRODUCTION
		NORMAL FETAL SKELETON
			Development
			Extremity Measurements
		SONOGRAPHIC EVALUATION OF A FETUS WITH SKELETAL DYSPLASIA
			Positive Family History
			Abnormal Bone Length or Appearance
			Additional Diagnostic Techniques
				Three-Dimensional Ultrasound
				Radiography
				Three-Dimensional Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Molecular Diagnosis
		LETHAL OR LIFE-LIMITING SKELETAL DYSPLASIAS
			Thanatophoric Dysplasia
			Achondrogenesis
			Osteogenesis Imperfecta
			Hypophosphatasia
			Campomelic Dysplasia
			Skeletal Ciliopathies
				Short-Rib Polydactyly Syndromes
			Other Dysplasias
		NONLETHAL OR VARIABLE-PROGNOSIS SKELETAL DYSPLASIAS
			Heterozygous Achondroplasia
			Diastrophic Dysplasia
			Asphyxiating Thoracic Dysplasia
			Ellis-van Creveld Syndrome
			Chondrodysplasia Punctata
			Dyssegmental Dysplasia
			Osteogenesis Imperfecta Types I, III, IV-Nonlethal Types
		LIMB REDUCTION DEFECTS AND ASSOCIATED CONDITIONS
			Proximal Focal Femoral Deficiency
			Radial Ray Defects
			Amniotic Band Sequence
			Caudal Regression Syndrome and Sirenomelia
			Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita
		Hand and Foot Malformations
		Skeletal Findings Associated with Aneuploidy
		SUMMARY
		Acknowledgments
		References
42 Sonography of Fetal Hydrops
	42. Sonography of Fetal Hydrops
		SONOGRAPHIC FEATURES
			Ascites
			Pleural Effusions
			Pericardial Effusion
			Subcutaneous Edema
			Placentomegaly
			Polyhydramnios
		ETIOLOGY
		IMMUNE HYDROPS
			Noninvasive Assessment of Alloimmunization
		NONIMMUNE HYDROPS
			Pathophysiology
			Causes and Associations
				Cardiovascular Abnormalities
					Cardiac Tumors
					Arrhythmias
					Heart Block
					Decreased Myocardial Function
				Neck Abnormalities
				Thoracic Anomalies
					Pleural Effusion
					Thoracic Mass
					Chest Drainage Procedures
				Gastrointestinal Anomalies
				Urinary Tract Anomalies
				Lymphatic Dysplasia
				Twins
				Chromosomal Anomalies
				Genetic Disorders
				Tumors
				Anemia
					Decreased Red Blood Cell Production
					Hemolysis
					Hemorrhage
				Infection
					Parvovirus B19
					Toxoplasmosis
					Other Infections
				Metabolic Disorders
				Skeletal Disorders
				Endocrine Disorders
				Drugs
		DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH TO HYDROPS
			History
			Maternal Investigations
			Complete Obstetric Ultrasound
			Fetal Investigations Beyond the Anatomic Survey
				Performing Percutaneous Umbilical Cord Blood Sampling
				Fetal Transfusion
				Cavity Aspiration
			Postnatal Investigations
		FETAL WELFARE ASSESSMENT IN NONIMMUNE HYDROPS
		OBSTETRIC PROGNOSIS
			Maternal Complications (Mirror Syndrome)
			Delivery
			Postnatal Outcome
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
43 Fetal Measurements- Normal and Abnormal Fetal Growth
	43. Fetal Measurements: Normal and Abnormal Fetal Growth and Assessment of Fetal Well-Being
		GESTATIONAL AGE DETERMINATION
			First Trimester
			Second and Third Trimesters
				Fetal Head Measurements
				Femur Length
				Abdominal Circumference
			Composite Formulas
			Gestational Age Estimation by Ultrasound: Most Accurate Approach at Each Stage of Pregnancy
		WEIGHT ESTIMATION AND ASSESSMENT
			Estimation of Fetal Weight
				Recommended Approach
			Weight Assessment in Relation to Gestational Age
		FETAL GROWTH ABNORMALITIES
			The Large Fetus: Large-for-Gestational Age and Macrosomia
				General Population
				Diabetic Mothers
			The Small Fetus: Small-for-Gestational-Age Fetus and Fetal Growth Restriction
		ASSESSMENT OF FETAL WELL-BEING
			Biophysical Profile
			Fetal Doppler
				Umbilical Artery Doppler
				Uterine Artery Doppler
				Ductus Venosus Doppler
				Middle Cerebral Artery Doppler
				Fetal Doppler in Clinical Practice: Societal Recommendations
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
44 Sonographic Evaluation of the Placenta
	44. Sonographic Evaluation of the Placenta
		PLACENTAL DEVELOPMENT
			Placental Appearance
			Placental Size
			Placental Vascularity and Doppler Ultrasound
			Amnion-Chorion Separation
		PLACENTAL POSITION
		PLACENTA PREVIA
		PLACENTA ACCRETA SPECTRUM
		PLACENTAL ABRUPTION
		PLACENTAL INFARCTION
		PLACENTAL MASSES
		MESENCHYMAL DYSPLASIA OF THE PLACENTA
		MOLAR GESTATION
		MORPHOLOGIC PLACENTAL ABNORMALITIES
			Circumvallate Placenta
			Succenturiate Lobe
			Bilobed Placenta
			Membranous Placenta
		PLACENTAL INFECTIONS
		NOVEL AND INNOVATIVE USES OF PLACENTAL ULTRASOUND
			Elastography
			Slow Flow Imaging
		UMBILICAL CORD
			Size and Appearance
			Cord Insertion Into the Placenta
			Velamentous and Marginal Cord Insertions
			Furcate Cord Insertion
			Vasa Previa
		PLACENTA DURING LABOR AND POSTPARTUM
			Third Stage of Labor
			Retained Products of Conception
		CONCLUSION
		Acknowledgment
		References
45 Cervical Ultrasound and Preterm Birth
	45. Cervical Ultrasound and Preterm Birth
		PRETERM BIRTH
		SONOGRAPHY OF THE UTERINE CERVIX
			Transabdominal Approach
			Transperineal/Translabial Approach
			Transvaginal Sonography
			Technical Limitations and Pitfalls
			Normal Cervix
			``Short\'\' Cervix
		PREDICTION OF SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH
			Obstetric Factors
			Cervical Funneling
			Rate of Cervical Change
			Dynamic Cervical Change
			Other Sonographic Features
		CERVICAL ASSESSMENT IN SPECIFIC CLINICAL SCENARIOS
			Asymptomatic Patients
				General Obstetric Population Screening
				High-Risk Obstetric Population Screening
					Prior Preterm Birth
					Multiple Gestations
					Uterocervical Anomalies and Cervical Surgery
					Preterm Premature Rupture of Membranes
					Polyhydramnios
					Fetal Therapy
			Symptomatic Patients
				Cervical Incompetence and Cervical Cerclage
					Post-cerclage Follow-up
					Who Should Not Get a Cerclage?
				Cervical Incompetence and Vaginal Pessary
				Vaginal Progesterone and 17-α Hydroxyprogesterone Caproate
		MANAGEMENT PROTOCOLS FOR THE ABNORMAL CERVIX
		CONCLUSION
		AKNOWLEDGMENT
		References
46 Neonatal and Infant Brain Imaging
	SIX - Pediatric Sonography
		46. Neonatal and Infant Brain Imaging
			EQUIPMENT
			SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
				Coronal Imaging
				Sagittal Imaging
				Posterior Fontanelle Imaging
				Mastoid Fontanelle Imaging
				Three-Dimensional Ultrasound
			STANDARDIZED REPORTS
				Standardized Views for Display
			DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY
				Brain Sulcal Development and Subarachnoid Spaces
				Cavum Septi Pellucidi and Cavum Vergae
				Cavum Velum Interpositum
				Frontal Horn Variants (Connatal Cysts)
				Choroid Plexus and Variants
				Germinal Matrix
				Calcar Avis
				Cerebellar Vermis
				Cisterna Magna
			CONGENITAL BRAIN MALFORMATIONS
			DISORDERS OF NEURAL TUBE CLOSURE
				Chiari Malformations
				Agenesis of Corpus Callosum
				Corpus Callosum Lipoma
				Dandy-Walker Spectrum
			DISORDERS OF DIVERTICULATION AND CLEAVAGE: HOLOPROSENCEPHALY
				Septo-Optic Dysplasia
				Alobar Holoprosencephaly
				Semilobar Holoprosencephaly
				Lobar Holoprosencephaly
				Middle Interhemispheric Form of Holoprosencephaly
			DISORDERS OF SULCATION AND CELLULAR MIGRATION
				Schizencephaly
				Lissencephaly
			DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS
				Porencephalic Cyst
				Hydranencephaly
				Cystic Encephalomalacia
				Metabolic Disorders
			HYDROCEPHALUS
				Normal Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation
				Diagnosis
					Level of Obstruction
			HYPOXIC-ISCHEMIC EVENTS
				Arterial Watershed Determines Regional Pattern of Brain Damage
				Germinal Matrix Hemorrhage
				Subependymal Hemorrhage (Grade I Hemorrhage)
				Intraventricular Hemorrhage (Grade II IVH)
				Intraventricular Hemorrhage With Hydrocephalus (Grade III Hemorrhage)
				Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage (Grade IV Hemorrhage or PVHI)
				Cerebellar Hemorrhage
				Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
				Cerebral Edema and Infarction
					White Matter Injury of Prematurity/Periventricular Leukomalacia
					Term Infants With Hypoxic Ischemic Injury
					Focal Infarction
				Lenticulostriate Vasculopathy
				Hyperechoic Caudate Nuclei
			POSTTRAUMATIC INJURY
				Subdural and Epidural Hematomas
			INFECTION
				Congenital Infections
					Cytomegalovirus and Toxoplasmosis
					Zika
					Herpes Simplex Virus
					Rubella
				Neonatal Acquired Infections
					Meningitis and Ventriculitis
			INTRACRANIAL MASSES
				Brain Tumors
				Cystic Intracranial Lesions
					Arachnoid Cysts
					Porencephalic Cysts
					Choroid Plexus Cysts
				Supratentorial Periventricular Cystic Lesions
					Frontal Horn Cysts (Connatal Cysts)
					Subependymal Cysts
					Periventricular Leukomalacia
				Galenic Venous Malformations
			REFERENCES
47 Neonatal Brain Doppler and Advanced Ultrasound Imaging Techniques
	47. Neonatal Brain Doppler and Advanced Ultrasound Imaging Techniques
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
			Transducer Selection and Imaging Approaches
			Color Doppler, Power Doppler, and Microvascular Imaging
			Doppler Imaging and Optimization
			Doppler Measurements and Factors That Change Resistive Index
			Shear Wave Elastography Principles
			Doppler and Shear Wave Elastography Safety Considerations
			Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Principles
				Technique
				Interpretation
				Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Safety Considerations
		NORMAL HEMODYNAMICS
			Normal Arterial Blood Flow Patterns
			Normal Venous Blood Flow Patterns
		INTENSIVE CARE THERAPIES AND CEREBRAL HEMODYNAMICS
			Mechanical Ventilation
			Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation
			Therapeutic Hypothermia and Brain Cooling
		DIFFUSE NEURONAL INJURY
			Hypoxic Ischemic Injury and Asphyxia
			Cerebral Edema
			Brain Death
		INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGE AND STROKE
			Focal Arterial Ischemic Stroke
		HYDROCEPHALUS
			Advanced Microvessel Ultrasound Imaging Techniques
		VASCULAR MALFORMATIONS
		INTRACRANIAL TUMORS
		NEAR-FIELD STRUCTURES
			Differentiation of Subarachnoid From Subdural Fluid Collections
			Dural Venous Sinus Thrombosis
		UNCOMMON VASCULAR APPLICATIONS
		PITFALLS OF ADVANCED SONOGRAPHY
		References
48 Doppler Sonography of the Brain in Children
	48. Doppler Sonography of the Brain in Children
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
		ULTRASOUND POWER SETTINGS
		LIMITATIONS AND PITFALLS IN TRANSCRANIAL DOPPLER
		CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT
		INDICATIONS FOR TRANSCRANIAL DOPPLER IMAGING
			Sickle Cell Disease
			Other Conditions With Increased Risk of Stroke
			Evaluation of Collateral Flow
			Headaches
			Sleep Apnea
			Vasospasm
			Hydrocephalus
			Central Nervous System Infections
			Vascular Malformations
			Traumatic Brain Injury
			Evaluation of Right-to-Left Shunt
			Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Injury Events
			Brain Death
			Neuromonitoring and Intraoperative Neuroradiologic Procedures
			Transcranial Doppler and Tissue Plasminogen Activator
			Functional Transcranial Doppler
			Other Potential Uses
		REFERENCES
49 The Pediatric Head and Neck
	49. The Pediatric Head and Neck
		NORMAL CERVICAL ANATOMY
		SUPRAHYOID SPACE
			Salivary Glands
				Normal Anatomy
				Congenital Salivary Lesions
				Inflammatory Salivary Lesions
					Acute Salivary Gland Inflammation
					Chronic Inflammatory Disease
				Masses
					Vascular Masses
					Neoplasms
					Other Suprahyoid Solid Lesions
			Suprahyoid Cystic Lesions
			Masticator Space
		INFRAHYOID SPACE
			Thyroid Gland
				Normal Anatomy
				Congenital Thyroid Lesions
				Inflammatory Thyroid Disease
				Thyroid Masses
					Pseudonodules Mimicking a Thyroid Nodule
					Benign Thyroid Masses
					Malignant Thyroid Lesions
				Factors Increasing Thyroid Cancer Risk
				Types of Thyroid Cancer
				Potential Sonographic Markers of Thyroid Malignancy
			Parathyroid Glands
			Other Cystic Lesions
		LACKING DEFINITION BY THE HYOID
			Congenital Lesions
				Branchial Anomalies
				Ectopic Thymus
				Dermoid and Epidermoid Lesions
				Teratomas
			Vascular Lesions
				Vascular Anomalies
				Vascular Tumors
				Vascular Malformations
			Other Congenital Lesions
			Iatrogenic Lesions
			Inflammatory Lesions
				Lymph Nodes
			Benign Soft Tissue Masses
				Fibromatosis Colli
				Neoplastic Soft Tissue Masses in the Head and Neck
				Adipocytic Tumors
				Infantile Myofibromatosis
					Rhabdomyosarcoma
					Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
					Pilomatricoma
					Lymphoma
					Neuroblastoma
					Other Neoplasms
					Metastatic Disease
		REFERENCES
50 The Pediatric Spinal Canal Sonography
	50. The Pediatric Spinal Canal Sonography
		EMBRYOLOGY
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE AND NORMAL ANATOMY
		SPINAL ANOMALIES
			Tethered Spinal Cord
		SPINAL DYSRAPHISM
			Open Spinal Dysraphism
			Closed Spinal Dysraphism With a Subcutaneous Mass
			Closed Spinal Defects Without a Subcutaneous Mass
				Complex Dysraphic States (Disorders of Gastrulation)
					Disorders of Midline Notochordal Integration
				Disorders of Midline Notochordal Formation
			Tumors
		HEMORRHAGE AND INFECTION
		ARACHNOID CYSTS
		INTRAOPERATIVE AND OTHER USES OF SPINAL SONOGRAPHY
		REFERENCES
51 The Pediatric Chest
	51. The Pediatric Chest
		ULTRASOUND TECHNIQUE
		PLEURAL EFFUSION AND EMPYEMA
			Sonographic Signs of Pleural Fluid
				Free Fluid Movement With Respiration
				Fluid Color Flow Doppler Signal
				Diaphragm Sign
				Displaced-Crus Sign
				Bare-Area Sign
			Sonography Versus Computed Tomography Scan
			Mass Versus Fluid
			Parapneumonic Collections and Empyema
			Lung Abscess Versus Empyema
		LUNG PARENCHYMAL DISORDERS
			Pneumonia
				Round Pneumonia
				Chest Radiograph or Ultrasound?
			Atelectasis
			Congenital Pulmonary Airway Malformation
			Bronchopulmonary Foregut Malformation
		DIAPHRAGM DISORDERS
		VASCULAR DISORDERS
			Vascular Thrombosis
			Lymphovascular Malformation
		MEDIASTINAL MASSES
			Thymic Index
			Abnormal Location of Thymus Mimicking Mass Lesion
			Anterior Mediastinal Masses
			Lymphadenopathy
			Posterior Mediastinal Masses
		ULTRASOUND-GUIDED INTERVENTIONAL PROCEDURES
		OTHER LESS ESTABLISHED INDICATIONS
		REFERENCES
52 The Pediatric Liver and Spleen
	52. The Pediatric Liver and Spleen
		ANATOMY
			Portal Vein Anatomy
				Left Lobe of Liver
				Right Lobe of Liver
				Hepatic Vein Anatomy
		NEONATAL JAUNDICE
			Choledochal Cyst
			Spontaneous Rupture of Bile Duct
			Paucity of Interlobular Bile Ducts and Alagille Syndrome
			Biliary Atresia
			Neonatal Hepatitis
			Neonatal Jaundice and Urinary Tract Infection or Sepsis
			Inborn Errors of Metabolism
		STEATOSIS
		CIRRHOSIS
		CHOLELITHIASIS
		LIVER TUMORS
			Identification
			Benign Liver Tumors
				Hemangiomas
				Hemangioendotheliomas
				Mesenchymal Hamartomas
				Adenomas
				Focal Nodular Hyperplasia
			Malignant Liver Tumors
				Hepatoblastoma
				Hepatocellular Carcinoma
				Undifferentiated Embryonal Sarcoma
				Biliary Rhabdomyosarcoma
				Metastases
			Detection of Tumor Angiogenesis
			Pyogenic Abscess
			Parasitic Abscesses
				Amebiasis
				Echinococcosis
				Schistosomiasis
			Granulomas of the Liver
		DOPPLER ASSESSMENT OF LIVER DISEASE AND PORTAL HYPERTENSION IN CHILDREN
			Basic Principles
				Physics of Doppler
			Normal Flow Patterns in Splanchnic Vessels
			Possibilities and Pitfalls
			Sonographic Technique
			Child With Liver Disease: Doppler Examination for Portal Hypertension
			Abnormal Flow Patterns Within the Portal System
				Absent Doppler Signal
				Arterialized Portal Venous Flow
				Reversed or To-and-Fro Flow
				Abnormal Hepatic Arterial Doppler Patterns
			Portal Venous Hypertension
			Prehepatic Portal Hypertension
			Intrahepatic Portal Hypertension
			Suprahepatic (Posthepatic) Portal Hypertension
			Surgical Portosystemic Shunts
			Hepatic Shear Wave Elastography
		DOPPLER SONOGRAPHY IN CHILDREN RECEIVING LIVER TRANSPLANT
			Pretransplantation Evaluation
			Posttransplantation Evaluation
			Multiorgan Transplants
		THE SPLEEN
		ACKNOWLEDGMENT
		REFERENCES
53 Pediatric Kidney, Urinary Tract, and Adrenal Sonography
	53. Pediatric Kidney, Urinary Tract, and Adrenal Sonography
		PEDIATRIC RENAL SONOGRAPHY
			Technique
			Normal Renal Anatomy
			Normal Bladder Anatomy
		CONGENITAL RENAL ANOMALIES
			Renal Duplication
			Other Renal Anomalies
		CAUSES OF RENAL COLLECTING SYSTEM DILATION
			Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction
			Ureteral Obstruction
			Bladder Outlet Obstruction
			Vesicoureteral Reflux
			Prune-Belly Syndrome
			Megacystis-Microcolon-Intestinal Hypoperistalsis Syndrome
			Bladder Exstrophy
			Urachal Anomalies
		URINARY TRACT INFECTION
			Acute Pyelonephritis
			Chronic Pyelonephritis
			Fungal Infection
			Cystitis
		MEDICAL RENAL DISEASE
			Acute Kidney Injury
			Chronic Kidney Disease
		URINARY TRACT CALCIFICATION
			Renal Cortical Calcification
			Medullary Nephrocalcinosis
			Urinary Stasis
			Renal Vein Thrombosis Calcifications
			Dystrophic Calcification
			Urolithiasis
		RENAL TRAUMA
		RENAL VASCULAR DISEASE
			Doppler Sonographic Examination Technique
			Normal Vascular Anatomy and Flow Patterns
			Causes of Increased Resistance to Intrarenal Arterial Flow
			Clinical Applications
				Vessel Patency
				Acute Renal Vein Thrombosis
				Renal Artery Stenosis
				Intrarenal Arterial Disease
		RENAL TRANSPLANTATION
			Vascular Complications
			Perinephric Fluid Collections
			Parenchymal Abnormalities
			Urologic Complications
			Tumors
		RENAL CYSTIC DISEASE
			Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease
			Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease
			Multicystic Renal Dysplasia
			Nephronophthisis and Medullary Cystic Disease
				Autosomal Dominant Tubulointerstitial Kidney Disease
			Congenital Renal Cysts
				Tuberous Sclerosis and Von Hippel-Lindau Disease
			Congenital Obstruction
				Acquired Cysts
		RENAL TUMORS
			Wilms Tumor
			Mesoblastic Nephroma
			Renal Cell Carcinoma
			Angiomyolipoma
			Multilocular Cystic Nephroma
			Renal Lymphoma
			Bladder Tumors
		PEDIATRIC ADRENAL SONOGRAPHY
			Normal Anatomy
			Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
			Neonatal Adrenal Hemorrhage
			Neuroblastoma
				Pheochromocytoma
			Adrenocortical Neoplasm
		REFERENCES
54 Pediatric Gastrointestinal Tract Sonography
	54. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Tract Sonography
		ESOPHAGUS AND STOMACH
			Normal Anatomy and Technique
				Esophagus
				Stomach
			Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
				Pylorospasm and Minimal Muscular Hypertrophy
				Pitfalls in Sonographic Diagnosis
			Gastric Diaphragm
			Gastritis and Ulcer Disease
			Bezoar
		DUODENUM AND SMALL BOWEL
			Normal Anatomy and Technique
			Congenital Duodenal Obstruction
			Midgut Malrotation and Midgut Volvulus
			Duodenal Hematoma
			Small Bowel Obstruction
			Intussusception
		COLON
			Normal Anatomy and Technique
			Ectopic or Imperforate Anus
		INTESTINAL INFLAMMATORY OR INFECTIOUS DISEASE
			Necrotizing Enterocolitis
			Appendicitis
			Gastrointestinal Neoplasms and Cysts
		PANCREAS
			Normal Anatomy and Technique
			Annular Pancreas
			Pancreatitis
			Pancreatic Masses
		REFERENCES
55 Pediatric Pelvic Sonography
	55. Pediatric Pelvic Sonography
		SONOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
		GENITOURINARY EMBRYOLOGY
		NORMAL FEMALE ANATOMY
			The Uterus
			The Vagina
			The Ovary
		OVARIAN ABNORMALITIES
			Ovarian Cysts
				Complications: Torsion, Hemorrhage, Rupture
			Polycystic Ovarian Disease (Stein-Leventhal)
			Massive Ovarian Edema
			Ovarian Neoplasms
		UTERINE AND VAGINAL ABNORMALITIES
			Congenital Anomalies
			Neoplasm
			Pregnancy
			Infection
				Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
				Foreign Bodies
		ENDOCRINE ABNORMALITIES
			Causes of Primary Amenorrhea
			Precocious Puberty
		NORMAL MALE ANATOMY
			The Prostate
			The Scrotum
			The Testes
		CONGENITAL MALE ABNORMALITIES
		ACUTE SCROTAL PAIN OR SWELLING
			Color Doppler Sonography in Testicular Torsion
		SCROTAL MASSES
			Intratesticular Causes
			Extratesticular Causes
			Paratesticular Tumors
		LOWER URINARY TRACT
			Congenital Anomalies
			The Ureter
			Neurogenic or Dysfunctional Bladder
			Infection
			Neoplasm
			Trauma
			Postoperative Bladder
		PRESACRAL MASSES
		REFERENCES
56 Pediatric Musculoskeletal Ultrasound
	56. Pediatric Musculoskeletal Ultrasound
		INTRODUCTION
		BASICS OF PEDIATRIC MUSCULOSKELETAL ULTRASOUND
			Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip
			Sonographic Technique
			Coronal or Longitudinal Plane
			Transverse Plane
			Treatment
			The Painful Hip
			Hip Effusion
			Transient or Toxic Synovitis
			Septic Arthritis
			Slipped Capital Femoral Head Epiphysis
			Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease
			Apophyseal Avulsion Injuries Around the Hip
			Snapping Hip Syndrome
		ROLE OF ULTRASOUND IN TRAUMA
			Sports-Related Soft Tissue Injuries
			Fractures
			Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy
		INFECTION AND INFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS
			Osteomyelitis
			Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
			Soft Tissue Masses
				Hemangioma
				Lymphatic Malformation
				Pilomatricoma
				Fibrosarcoma
		CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
			Congenital Vertical Talus
			Tibial Hemimelia
		CONCLUSION
		REFERENCES
57 Pediatric Interventional Sonography
	57. Pediatric Interventional Sonography
		GENERAL PRINCIPLES
		SEDATION
			Equipment and Transducers
			Biopsy
			Drainage of Fluid Collections
			Lumbar Puncture
			Sclerotherapy of Vascular Malformations
			Neonatal Central Venous Access
			Botox of Salivary Glands
			Musculoskeletal Interventions
			Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
			Intravascular Ultrasound
		REFERENCES