Designing social research : The logic of anticipation

List of Figures
List of Tables
Acknowledgements
Introduction
1 Preparing Research Proposals and Research Designs
2 Designing Social Research
3 Research Questions and Objectives
4 Strategies for Answering Research Questions
5 Concepts, Theories, Hypotheses and Models
6 Sources and Selection of Data
7 Methods for Answering Research Questions
8 Sample Research Designs
Appendix: Examples of Research Topics and Research Questions
References
Index

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Detailed Chapter Contents

List of Figures xi
List of Tables xii
Acknowledgements xiii

Introduction 1
  Purpose of the Book 1
  The Audiences 2
  Writing the Book 3
  Structure of the Book 5
  The Nature of Science in the Social Sciences 7
  Foundation Concepts 8
  A Manifesto for Social Research 9

1 Preparing Research Proposals and Research Designs 12
  Introduction 12
  Research Proposals 14
  Research Designs 21
  Conclusion 32

2 Designing Social Research 35
  Introduction 35
  Common Views of Research Design 36
  Classifications of Research Designs 39
  An Alternative View 42
    Fundamental Requirements 42
    Core Elements 42
    The Ideal and the Practical 44
  Getting Starred 45
    Research Topic and Problem 45
    Influences on the Choice of Topic 47 
    Basic and Applied Research 49 
  Roles for Researchers 52 
  Conclusion 56

3 Research Questions and Objectives 58 
  Introduction 58 
  Research Questions 59 
    Types of Research Questions 60 
    The Purpose of Research Questions 62 
    Developing and Refining Research Questions 65 
    Influences on the Choice of Research Questions 69 
    Research Questions and Hypotheses 69 
    Research Questions and the Literature Review 71 
  Research Objectives 72
    Types of Objectives 72 
    Relationships among Research Objectives 82
    Research Objectives and Questions 83 
  Conclusion 84 Types of Data 183

4 Strategies for Answering Research Questions 85 
  Introduction 85
  A Parable of four Paradigms: Part 1 87 
    Social Scientists from Outer Space 88 
    The Application of Four Research Strategies 91 
  Four Research Strategies 100 
    Inductive Research Strategy 102 
    Deductive Research Strategy 104 
    Retroductive Research Strategy 108 
    Abductive Research Strategy 114 
  Ontological and Epistemological Comparisons 119 
  Research Strategies and Research Questions 121 
  Choosing a Research Strategy 122 
  Research Design and Research Strategies 124 
  Research Strategies and the Role of the Researcher 125 
  Conclusion 126 

5 Concepts, Theories, Hypotheses and Models 128 Conclusion 225
  Introduction 128
  The Role of Concepts 129 
    The Ontological Tradition 130 
    The Operationalizing Tradition 133 
    The Sensitizing Tradition 136 
    The Hermeneutic Tradition 138
  Concepts and Research Strategies 139
  The Role of Theory 141
    Some Definitions of Theory 141 
    Levels of Theory 143
    Relationship between Theory and Research 145
    Theoreticians' Theory 159
    The Role of Theoreticians' Theory in Research 161
    Researchers' Theory 163
  The Role of Hypotheses 163
  The Role of Models 165
    Types of Models 165
  Theories, Models and Resea rch Strategies 177
    Inductive and Deductive Strategies 178
    Retroductive and Abductive Strategies 180
  Summary and Conclusion 182

6 Sources and Selection of Data 183
  Introduction 183
  Types of Data 183
  Forms of Data 185
  Sources of Data 187
    Natural Social Settings 187
    Semi-natural Settings 191
    Artificial Settings 192
    Social Artefacts 196
    A Dilemma 196
  Selection of Data 197
    Populations and Samples 198
    Methods of Sampling 198
    Acuracy, Precision and Bias 206
    Sampling and Tests of Significance 207
    Sample Size 208
  Case Studies 213
    Background 214
    Definitions 215
    Criticisms of Case Studies 218
    Uses of Case Studies 218
    Generalizing and Theorizing from Case Studies 222
  Conclusion 225

7 Methods for Answering Research Questions 227
  Introduction 227
  The Timing of Data Collection 228
  Qualitative and Quantitative Techniques 231
    Data Collection Techniques 232
    Data Reduction Techniques 235
    Data Analysis Techniques 236
  Uses of Quantitative and Qualitative Methods 242
  Quantitative versus Qualitative Research 243
  Preoccupations of Quantitative and Qualitative Researchers 247
    Quantitative Researchers 247
    Qualitative Researchers 251
  Generalizing in Qualitative Research 253
  A Parable of Four Paradigms: Part 2 256
    The Post-mortem 256
    The Sequel 257
    New Beginnings 259
  Combining Methods 262
    Triangulation 262
    Legitimate Combinations 270
  Research Strategies and Methods 272
    Qualitative and Quantitative Methods and Data 272
    Paradigms and Methods 273
    Combining Methods 274
  Conclusion 275

8 Sample Research Designs 277
  Introduction 277
  Research Design 1: Environmental Worldviews and Behaviour 278
  Research Design 2: Age and Environmentalism 291
  Research Design 3: Gender Differences in Environmentalism 291
  Research Design 4: Motivation for Environmentally Responsible Behaviour 297
  Postscript 304

Appendix: Examples of Research Topics and Research Questions 306
References 310
Index 330

Figures
1.1 Elements of a social research design 33
2.1 Core elements of a social research design 43
2.2 Research topic and problem 46
3.1 Research questions and objectives 61
3.2 The hourglass analogy 67
4.1 Research strategies 86
4.2 Realist social explanation 112
5.1 Concepts, theories, hypotheses and models 129
5.2 Parsons's theory of the system of action 131
5.3 Key concepts in Structuration Theory 132
5.4 Elements of theory 154
5.5 Relations among theoretical approaches and potential for theory-building 157
5.6 The cycle of theory construction and resting 158
5.7 Willer's scheme of theory and models 170
5.8 Types of modelling schemes 174
5.9 The dynamics of interpersonal motivation 174
6.1 Data sources and se lection 184
7.1 Data collection, reduction and analysis 229

Tables

2.1 Classification of resea rch designs 40
2.2 Basic and applied social research 50
4.1 The logic of four research strategies 101
4.2 Resea rch strategies, objectives and questions 124
5.1 Research strategies, theory and models 177
6.1 Sample size 210
7.1 Contrasting qualitative and quantitative labels 244