Design Computing and Cognition’22

Preface
List of Reviewers
Contents
Natural Language Processing and Design
Extracting Information for Creating SAPPhIRE Model of Causality from Natural Language Descriptions
	Introduction
	Design Creativity and Design by Analogy
	Support for Design by Analogy
	Structured Representation from a Natural Language Description
	Research Questions and Research Methodology
		Opportunities for Research
		Research Questions
		Research Methodology
	Intercoder Reliability Study
		Goals of the Study
		Study Procedure
		Samples Used in the Intercoder Reliability Study and Results
	Proposed Process
		Process Descriptions
	Process Validation
		Developer Testing
		User Validation of the New Process
	Discussion
	Conclusions
	References
Recognizing the Structure of Biological Designs in Text Documents
	Introduction
	Related Research
	Intelligent Biologically Inspired Design
	Structure Recognition in IBID
		Positive Example of IBID’s Structure Recognition
		Negative Examples of IBID’s Structure Recognition
	Experimentation and Results
		Comparing IBID’s Results and the Humans’ Results
		Adjusting for Sources of Discrepancies via Adjusting the Ontology and Relaxation of Matching Criteria
	Discussion
	Conclusions
	References
Generative Design Ideation: A Natural Language Generation Approach
	Background
		Computer-Aided Design Ideation
		Pre-trained Language Model
	Aim
	Significance
	Method
	Case Study and Results
	Discussion and Future Work
	References
The ABC (Affordance-Bias-Cognition) Reasoning of Product-Use Interaction: A Text Mining Approach
	Introduction
	Background
		Product-Use Interaction from a Cognitive Perspective
		Text Mining Approaches to Analyze Design Artifacts
	Theoretical Framework
	Data and Methodology
	Results
	Discussion
	Limitations and Future Developments
	Conclusions
	References
Design Progress Dashboard: Visualising a Quantitative Divergent/Convergent Pattern of Design Team Progress Through Natural Language Processing
	Introduction
	Related Works
		Reframing a Design Problem
		The Importance of Divergence and Convergence in Design
		Design Process Across Products, Systems & Services
		Opportunity of Adopting NLP in Design Documentations
	Research Methodology
		Corpus Setup
		Data Collection
		Data Cleaning Using NLP
		Data Processing
		Data Visualisation
	Results and Discussion
		Data Visualisation Framework
		Individual, Team and Class Representation
		Final Peer Assessment
		Case Study
	Conclusion
	Limitations
	Future Work
	References
TechNet 2.0: Expanding Technology Semantic Network with Qualitative Relations to Enhance Reasoning Capabilities
	Introduction
	Merging TechNet and EKG
	TechNet 2.0: New Reasoning Capabilities
	Discussions and Outlook
	References
Design Cognition—1
A Classification of Methods and Constructs in Design Cognition Research
	Introduction
	Methods
	Defining Terms
	Research Methods for Investigating Design Cognition
		Self-report
		Behavioural
		Physiological
	Design Cognition Constructs
	Reasoning
		Logical Reasoning
		Visual Reasoning
		Dual-Process Theories of Reasoning
	Decision Making
	Knowledge and Memory
	Metacognition
	Executive Functions
	Attention
	Visual Perception and Mental Imagery
	Classifying Methods and Constructs
	Conclusions
	References
Is the PSVT:R Suitable for Evaluating Spatial Skill in Design? A Critique
	Background/Motivation
		Aims
		Significance
	Method
	Results
		What Is the Origin of the Term “Gestalt Processing” in Spatial Ability Assessment?
		How Are Gestalt and Analytic Processing Defined?
		How Was It Determined That the PSVT:R Is the Test of Spatial Ability that Best Measures “Gestalt Processing”?
		What Are the Implications for Using the PSVT:R to Assess Spatial Ability?
	Conclusions
	References
Effects of Open-Endedness on Problem Solving Behaviour
	Introduction
	Problem Solving
		Ill-Structured, Open-Ended Problems
	The Present Study
		Solution Variability
		Path Dependency
		Perceived Difficulty
	Method
		Participants and Experimental Design
		Experimental Conditions and Stimuli Design
		Procedure
		Measures
	Results
		Solution Variability
		Path Dependency
		Task Difficulty
	Discussion
	References
A Focussed Literature Review of Dual-Process Thinking to Inform the Study of Hackathons
	Introduction
	Background and Motivation
		Dual-Process Theory
		A Dual-Process Theory of Design
		Description of Hackathons
		Study Objectives
	Methodology
	Findings
		Dual-Process Theory in the Hackathon Design Process
		Dual-Process Theory During Problem Definition
		Dual-Process Theory During Conceptual Design
		Dual-Process Theory During Preliminary Design
		Dual-Process Theory During Detailed Design
		Dual-Process Theory During Communication
		Impact of Environment on Cognition
	Discussion
		Future Research Directions
		Limitations
	Conclusion
	References
A Systems Thinking Inspired Approach to Understanding Design Activity
	Introduction
	Background
		Systems and Systems Thinking
		Systems Thinking and Design
		Systems Mapping
		System Mapping for Analyzing Design Protocols: A Novel Approach
	Method
		Data Collection
		Generation of Maps
	Results
		Size of the Map
		Maps over Time
		Patterns in Maps
	Discussion
		Contributions and Significance
		Future Research
	Conclusion
	References
Investigating the Cognitive Processes Involved in Design Ideation Using Psychological Tests
	Introduction
	Existing Behavioral Literature on Ideation
	Present Study
	Methods
		Participants
	Tasks and Procedure
		Ideation Tasks
	Novelty Assessment Procedure
	Results
		Correlations Between Novelty and Cognitive Processes
	Variance in Novelty Scores Accounted for by the Cognitive Processes
	Discussion
	Semantic Association
	Executive Functions
		Broad Retrieval Ability (Gr)
		Inhibition
		Working Memory
	Intelligence
	Mental Imagery
	Divergent Thinking
	Variance in Novelty Accounted for by the Cognitive Processes
	Limitations
	Conclusion
	References
Design Neurocognition
Brain and Behavior in Engineering Design: An Exploratory Study on Using Concept Mapping
	Introduction
	Background
	Using fNIRS to Explore Neurocognitive Activation and Brain Network
	Research Questions
	Methods
		Experiment Design
		Data Analysis
	Results
		Students’ Neurocognitive Activation Is Positively Correlated with Their Concept Mapping Performance
		Students’ Brain Network Features Are Negatively Correlated with Their Concept Mapping Performance
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
EEG Microstate Characteristics in Product Conceptual Design: Increased Time Coverage of Microstate Class Related to the Default Mode Network
	Background/Motivation
	Aims and Hypotheses
	Method
		Participants
		Experimental Design
	EEG Data Acquisition and Processing
	Statistical Analysis
	Results
	Changes of Microstate Parameters in Non-Creative Conditions
	Changes of Microstate Parameters Among Creative Conditions
		Duration
		Occurrence
		Coverage
	Discussion
	Interpretation of the Thinking Modalities of Each Microstate Class Following the Results of the Non-Creativity Task (Rest, MI, and VF)
	Differences in Microstate Parameters Between the Creativity Tasks
	Conclusions
	References
Neurophysiological Responses to Biophilic Design: A Pilot Experiment Using VR and EEG
	Background
	Aims
	Method
	Participants
	Environmental Simulation
	Experiment Procedure
	Data Collection and Processing Methods
	Data Analysis Methods
	Analysis of Results
	Effect of Biophilic Design on Relative Alpha (RA) Power
	Effect of Biophilic Design on Relative Beta (RB) Power
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
Comparing Designers’ EEG Activity Characteristics for Common Association and Remote Association
	Introduction
	Methodology
	Participants
	Tasks
	Procedure
	EEG Recording and Equipment
	EEG Data Analysis
	Results
		Spectral Analysis
		ERPS Results
		EEG Signals Tendency Results
	Discussion
		Compare the Findings with Existing Studies
		Comparing the EEG Activities for Remote Association and Common Association
	Limitations and Future Research
	Conclusion
	References
Characterization of Design Brain States Over Time When Using Morphological Analysis and TRIZ
	Introduction
	Background
		Two Approaches to Concept Generation: Characteristics of Morphological Analysis and TRIZ
		Using Dynamic Functional Connectivity to Identify Brain States
	Methodology
		Experiment Design
		Data Collection
		Data Analysis
	Results
		Identification of Brain States When Generating Concepts with Morphological Analysis
		Identification of Brain States When Generating Concepts with TRIZ
	Discussion and Limitations
	Conclusion
	References
Learning and Design
Representing Design Cognition Through 3-D Deep Generative Models
	Background
	Aims
	Significance
	Project
	Concept
	Context
	Analyzing the Data
		Experiment 1: LiDAR Scanner
		Experiment 2: Mesh Model—Partition with a Grid
		Experiment 3: Partition with Design References
	Methodology
	Data Pre-Processing
	Learning the Underlying Structure
	Generating New Samples
	Results
	Conclusions
	References
Classifying Building and Ground Relationships Using Unsupervised Graph-Level Representation Learning
	Introduction
	Building and Ground Relationships
	Graph Representation Learning
	Unsupervised Graph Level Representation Learning (UGLRL)
	Topology
	Methodology
	Experiment Case Study
	Experiment Results
	Learning Rate
	Number of Epochs
	Batch Size
	Conclusion
	References
Data-Based Generation of Residential Floorplans Using Neural Networks
	Background
	Disadvantages of Common GD Applications
	The Dataset
	Related Work
	Methods
	Pixel-Based Methods
		Image Classification Using a Neural Network (NN)
		Image Generation Using a Generative Adversarial Neural Network (GAN)
		Interior Layout Generation Using Pix2Pix
	Graph-Based Methods
		Adjacency Matrix Generation Using a GAN
		Random Walk Generation Using a GAN
		Variational Auto-Encoders (VAE)
		Autoregressive Models
		From Graph to Plan
	Results
	Conclusion
	References
Voxel Substitutional Sampling: Generative Machine Learning for Architectural Design
	Introduction
	Naïve Method
		Neighbourhood Pattern
		Neighbourhood Radius
		Transition Matrix
		Toy Example
	Proposed Method
		Best Matching Neighbourhood
		Neighbourhood Pattern with Block Selection
		Grid Selection and Grid Replacement
		Noise-Initialised Input Model
		Remix Mode
		Applying Global Function
		Scaling Inputs
		Masking Voxels
	Results
		Prototype
		Failures
	Conclusion
	References
Creative Design and Co-design
The ‘Atlas’ of Design Conceptual Space: A Design Thinking Framework with Cognitive and Computational Footings
	Background and Motivation
		The Role of Experience in Creative Design
		Conceptual Space Exploration as a Model for Designing Process
		The Uncertain Relationship Between Prior Design Information and Design Outputs
	Aims and Significance
	Methodology
		‘Reference Frames’ and ‘Thinking by Moving’
		The ‘Atlas’ of Design Conceptual Space: The ‘Reference Frame’ for Design Thinking
	Discussions and Future Work
	Conclusions
	References
Computer Games for Design Creativity Research: Opportunities and Challenges
	Introduction
	Background
		Games and Serious Games
		Design and Games
		Creativity and Games
	Method
		Literature Search Overview
		Game Search Overview
	Results
		Computer Game Use Reported in the Literature
		Results from the Search of Potential Games
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
Exploring Designers’ Encounters with Unexpected Inspirational Stimuli
	Introduction
	Related Works
		Processes Designers Use to Search for Inspiration
		Designers’ Preferences for and Use of Inspirational Stimuli
	Methods
		Participant Information
		Multi-modal Search Tool
		Design Task
		Identification of Search Behaviors from Task and Think-Aloud Data
	Results and Discussion
		Selection of Unexpected Inspirational Stimuli
		Motivations for Selecting Unexpected Inspirational Stimuli
	Conclusion
	References
Collaborative Design: Evolution of Project’s Information and Role of the Graphic Interactions
	Motivation
		Background
		Existing Research
	Aim
	Method
		Environment
		Data Collection
	Results
		Typical Design Activities
		Recurrent Information Associations
		Importance of Graphical Traces
	Conclusion
	References
Collaborative-Knowledge Construction Activity Method to Analyse Design-Learning in VR Co-design Crits
	Introduction
	Design Activities Through Codesign
		The Representational Ecosystem for Supporting Codesign
		Design Learning Through Codesign Critiques
	Design-Learning Assessment Through Co-KCA: A Proposed Method
		Methods of Design Learning Assessment
		Linkography
		The Function-Behaviour-Structure (FBS) Ontology
		Design Conversations
		Knowledge Construction Activity (KCA)
		The Co-KCA Method
	Case Study
	Preliminary Results
	Co-KCA Analysis
	Discussion
	Conclusions
	References
Revisiting Darke: Tracing the Emergence of Design Generators in Architectural Design
	Introduction
		Primary Generators and Design Interpretation
		Modeling and Visualizing Interpretation as a Situated Activity
	Motivation
	Objectives and Scope
	Significance
	Method
		Preliminary Trial
		Task
		Participants and Setup
		Data Processing
		Visualizing the Effects of PGs on Interpretation and Designing
		Simplifying Diagrams and Extracting Patterns
	Results
		Episode 1—Rooftop Field in Suburb
		Episode 2—Vertical and Horizontal Windows
		Episode 3—Frame-like Terrace
		Episode 4—Vertical Windows Coherent with Surroundings
		Modeling PGs in Designing
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
Design Cognition—2
Inspirational Stimuli Attain Visual Allocation: Examining Design Ideation with Eye-Tracking
	Introduction
	Background
		Eye-Tracking Technology
		Eye-Tracking Data
		Eye-Tracking in Design Ideation Research
	Experimental Method
		Participants
		Experiment Procedure and Calibration
		Hardware
		Software
		Surface Tracking
	Processing and Analysis of Eye-Tracking Data
	Data Processing
		Exporting Eye-Tracking Data
		Data Concatenation
	Data Analysis: Are Participants Paying More Attention to Inspirational Words?
		Data Quality
		Heatmaps
		Fixation Distribution
		Statistical Analysis of Fixation Distribution Data
		Scanpaths
	Results
		Heatmaps
	Fixation Distribution
	Discussion
	Scanpaths
	Limitations
	Future Work
	Conclusion
	Published Code Repository and Data
	References
Using Eye Tracking to Measure Cognitive Load of Designers in Situ
	Introduction
	Background
		Cognitive Load Theory
		Survey Based Methods to Assess Cognitive Load
		Eye Parameters to Assess Cognitive Load
	Aims
	Materials and Methods
		Participants
		Task
		Procedure and Data Collection
		Data Analysis
	Results
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
A Test of the Structural Alignment Model for Similarity Judgements of Design Concepts
	Introduction
	The Structural Alignment Model of Similarity Judgements
	The Present Study
	Method
	Results
	Discussion
	Conclusions
	References
Design Strategies that Work: How Engineers Use Sequential Decision-Making to Improve Design Performance in Concept Selection
	Introduction
	Background
		Selecting Design Concepts
		Concept Selection Is a Series of Sequential Decisions
		Design Strategies that Influence Design Performance
	Methods
		Concept Selection Task
		Participants
		Research Design
		Data Analysis
	Results
		Isolating Parameters and Prioritizing Parameters Improved Design Performance
		High and Low Performing Designers Differed in Their Design Strategies
	Discussion
		Case Study: Strategy Usage for a High-Performing Participant
	Implications of Key Results
		Incorporating Design Strategies of Interest into Practice
	Conclusion
	References
Knowledge Transfer in Designing as a Situated Activity: A Case Study of Spatial Design Using Lego Blocks
	Introduction
		Knowledge Transfer in Design
		Agent-Environment Interaction and Memory in Situated Design Agents
	Aim, Objectives and Significance
	Method
		Task Overview
		Execution and Documentation
	Results
		Feature Selection
		Example for Knowledge Transfer During the Activity
		Verbal and Visual Forms of Knowledge Transfer
		Selection and Adaptation in KT Across Participants
		A Closer Look at KT and Memory Construction from Interactions
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
Shape Grammars and Design Knowledge
Back to the Drawing Board: Shape Calculations in Shape Machine
	Introduction
	Back to the Drawing Board
		Manual Production
		Automated Production
		Conditional Production
	Skeuomorphic Variations
		3D Prints
		Origami
		Kerfs
	Discussion
	References
Notes on Shape Valued Functions
	Introduction
	Note 1: On Rule Schemas and Shape Valued Functions
	Note 2: On Functions Containing b(x)
	Note 3: On the Rule Action Functions
	Note 4: On Boolean and Shape Valued Functions
	Final Note
	References
Making Grammars for Computational Lacemaking
	Introduction
	Background
	Method
	Generative Specification of Cretan Lacemaking
	From Hand Movements to Lace Patterns
		The Braiding Grammar
		The Lace Pattern Grammar
	Discussion
	References
An Agent-Based Approach to Adaptive Design Based on Influences Mediated by Artifacts
	Introduction
	Related Work
		Designing in a Complex Adaptive System
		Distributed Situation Awareness
		Agent-Based Modeling and Design Strategy
	Aims and Hypotheses
	Study Design
	HO-PA Model
		Empirical Experiment
	Analysis Results
		Analysis 1: The Graph Similarity of Arrangement Graphs
		Analysis 2: Betweenness Centrality of Arrangement Graphs
		Agent-Based Model Validation
	Conclusion
	References
Visualization of Design Data in the Wild: Interactive Evaluation and Exploration of Combined Performance and Geometric Data
	Background and Motivation
		Design Competitions
		Wild Data
	Literature Review
		Human-Curated “Databases” That Are Text and Image/Based
		Machine Learning and Datasets for Various Design Applications
		Synthetic Design Data
		Visualization of User-Supplied Data and Design Space Exploration
	Research Aims
	Method
		Conceptual Overview
		Data Processing and Representation
		User Interface: Performance Maps
	Results: SimJEB Dataset Case Study
		Selecting a Design: Sample Exploration
		Finding Patterns in Data
	Results: Tower of London Competition Revisited
	Conclusions
	References
Dimensions of Prototyping Knowledge: Characterising Prototype Evaluation Methods and Their Contributions to Design Knowledge
	A Background to Knowledge Dimensions, Making and Evaluating
	Prototyping Media and Evaluation—Short Background
	Knowledge Dimensions—Short Background and Definition
	Aim
	Method
		Participant Backgrounds
		Study Materials
		Formulation and Categorisation of Evaluation Methods
		Study Process
		Comparison Between Prototype Creation and Evaluation Methods
	Results
		Top-3 Evaluation Methods
		Physical Versus Digital Evaluation Methods
		Qualitative Versus Quantitative Evaluation Methods
		High Versus Low Fidelity
		Evaluation Process Time Analysis
	Comparisons Between Prototype Creation and Evaluation Methods
	Discussion
		Method Alignment with KDs, Suitability, and Selection
		Digital Versus Physical Domains
		Knowledge from Making and Evaluating
		Limitations and Further Work
	Conclusion
	References
Design Generation and Quantum Computing
A New Approach to Facilitated Idea Generation and Application Through a Preliminary Study
	Motivation
	Background
	Theoretical Framework for Role of Facilitator
	Methods
	The Role of the Facilitator
	Participants
	Experiment Design
	Ideation Effectiveness Metrics
	Questionnaire
	Results
	Ideation Effectiveness
	Survey Data
	NASA-TLX Workload Assessment
	Survey Questions
	Discussion
	Limitations
	Conclusion
	References
The Impact of Procedural Knowledge Retrieval on the Architectural Design Process in Parametric Design Environments
	Introduction
	Background/Motivation
		Parametric Design Environments
		Function Behavior Structure Ontology
		Knowledge in Interactive Information Retrieval
	Aims
	Significance
	Method
	Results
	Questionnaires
	Additional Data from the Interview
	FBS Interpretation
	Conclusion and Further Research
	References
Evolutionary Optimization of Benchmarks: Parametric Typologies for Generating Typical Designs
	Introduction
	Site-Specific Benchmarks
	Parametric Typologies
	Designing Public Housing Precincts
	Paper Overview
	Methodology for Creating Parametric Typologies
	Representative Projects
	Underlying Dependencies of Design Elements
	Generative Steps
	Example Parametric Schema
	Algorithm for Parking Block Generation
	Algorithm for Skeletal Axis Generation
	Algorithm for Skeletal Line Generation
	Algorithm for Tower Cluster Generation
	Case Study
	Evaluation Metrics
	Solar Radiation Metric
	Accessibility Metric
	Economic Feasibility Metric
	Design Optimization System
	Optimization Results
	Discussion
	Optimization in Design
	Conclusion
	References
Imager, Interpreter, Aesthete: Roles Played by Design Students in Graphic Design Ideation
	Introduction
	Background
	Methodology
	Data Analysis
	Results
	Interpreter Role
	Imager Role
	Aesthete Role
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
Research Questions in Applying Quantum Computing to Systems Design
	Introduction
	Grover’s Algorithm for Unstructured Search
	Applying Grover’s Algorithm to a Systems Design Problem
	Comparing with Classical Unstructured Search
	Discussion and Research Questions
	Conclusion
	References
Human Behavior
“Like a Moodboard, But More Interactive”: The Role of Expertise in Designers’ Mental Models and Speculations on an Intelligent Design Assistant
	Introduction
	Related Work
		AI-Enabled Functionalities in Engineering Design
		Human-AI and Human–Machine Teaming in Engineering Design
		Mental Models in Engineering Tasks Related to AI
		Analogical Reasoning and Speculation in Engineering Design
		Experience in Designers’ Mental Models and Speculation
	Methods
		Participant Information
		Engineering Design Tool and Design Task
		Interview Study Protocol and Analysis
	Results & Discussion
		Mental Models and Perceived Function of AI Tools
		Transfer to the Participant’s Domain
		Analogy and Connections to Named Tools
		Speculation and Exploration of AI Functionalities in Design
	Implications for Design Research and Practice
	Limitations
	Conclusions
	References
How Long Until We Are (Psychologically) Safe? A Longitudinal Investigation of Psychological Safety in Virtual Engineering Design Teams in Education
	Introduction
		Measuring and Validating Psychological Safety in Teams Research
		Potential Differences with Virtual Teams in the Engineering Design Process
	Research Design and Methodology
		Participants
		Procedure
		Results
	Conclusion and Discussion
	References
The Effect of Design Styles and Logos on Product Preference
	Design Styles of a Product
	Background
		The Effect of Design Styles and Logos on Products
		ERPs in Product Evaluation
	Methods
		Materials
		Participants and Procedure
		EEG Recording and Analyses
	Results
		Subjective Ratings
		N1
		P2
		N2
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
How Does Machine Advice Influence Design Choice? The Effect of Error on Design Decision Making
	Introduction
	Related Work
		Human–Computer Collaboration in Engineering Design
		Human Trust in Automation and Acceptance of Algorithmic Advice
	Methods
	Results
		The Effect of Model Error on Suggestion Acceptance and Performance
		The Effect of Suggestions in Uncertain Scenarios
		Participant Perception of Model Accuracy and Self-Reported Decision-Making Strategies
	Discussion
		Designers Utilize Agent Suggestions Less Than Expected When There is a “Ground Truth”
		Designers Are More Willing to Accept Agent Suggestions When the “Better” Design Alternative is Uncertain
		Trial-By-Trial Design Properties and Their Implications on Decision Making
		Limitations
		Future Directions
	Conclusion
	References
The Creation of Emotionally Attuned Patterns Through an Analysis of Line
	Introduction
	What Is a Pattern?
		Form and Emotion
	Experimental Protocol
	Representations of Negative Emotions
	Representations of Positive Emotions
	Creating Bespoke Emotive Pattern Designs
		Final Designs
	Results from Visual Assessment
	Results and Discussion
	Implications for Design Practice
	Limitations
	Conclusion
	References