Current Status of Marine Water Microbiology, 1e

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: General Considerations
	1: Impact of Physical and Chemical Processes on Marine Environment
		1.1	 Introduction
		1.2	 Physical and Chemical Properties of Seawater
			1.2.1	 Chemical Processes
				1.2.1.1	 A Eh and pH Defined
			1.2.2	 Miscellaneous Chemical Reactions and Mineral Formation
		1.3	 Main Factor Responsible for the Physiochemical Process
			1.3.1	 Transport of Pollutants
			1.3.2	 Sedimentation Processes
			1.3.3	 Atmospheric Interactions
			1.3.4	 Chemical Pollutants
			1.3.5	 Pathogens
			1.3.6	 Metals
			1.3.7	 Tracers
		1.4	 Sea-Based Activities Resulting in the Release of Contaminants
			1.4.1	 Accidental Spillage
			1.4.2	 Emissions from Antifouling Paints
			1.4.3	 Mariculture
			1.4.4	 Medicinal Products
			1.4.5	 Offshore Activities
			1.4.6	 Other Sea-Based Activities
			1.4.7	 Munitions and Chemical Weapons
			1.4.8	 Anthropogenic Contaminants
		1.5	 Plastic Pollution and Ocean Environment
		1.6	 Role of Mercury in Chemical Process
		1.7	 Impact of Physiochemical Process on Human Health and Marine Organisms
		1.8	 Future Prospective
		1.9	 Conclusions
		References
	2: Microbes in the Recycling of Carbon in the Arctic Regions: A Short Review
		2.1	 Introduction
		2.2	 Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle: Carbon Dioxide
		2.3	 Microbial Role in the Recycling of Carbon Dioxide
		2.4	 Conclusion
		References
	3: Microbial Symbiosis in Marine Ecosystem
		3.1	 Symbiotic Nature in Marine Environment
		3.2	 Organizational Adaptation Played by Symbiosis
		3.3	 Mechanistic Approach Adapted by Symbionts
		3.4	 Symbiosis
			3.4.1	 Algae and Coral Reefs
			3.4.2	 Coral and Bacteria
			3.4.3	 Hawaiian Squid and Vibrio fischeri
				3.4.3.1	 Endozoicomonas
				3.4.3.2	 Osedax
		3.5	 The Function of Bacteria in Coral Stress and Stress Response
		3.6	 Gain Grounding Monitoring of Microbial Symbiosis
		References
Part II: Communities of Special Interest
	4: Cyanobacteria in Ocean
		4.1	 Introduction
		4.2	 Origin of Marine Cyanobacteria
		4.3	 Role of Cyanobacteria in Baltic Sea
		4.4	 Role of Cyanobacteria in Proterozoic Oceans
		4.5	 Role of Cyanobacterial in Alkane Production in the Ocean
		4.6	 Role of Cyanobacteria in Tropical and Subtropical Marine Environments
		4.7	 Ecological Role of Cyanobacteria in Marine Environment
		4.8	 Economic Importance of Marine Cyanobacteria
		4.9	 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
		References
	5: Marine Algae and Their Importance
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 Properties of Marine Algae
		5.3	 Microalgae Harvesting Methods
			5.3.1	 Flocculation
			5.3.2	 Floatation
			5.3.3	 Filtration
			5.3.4	 Centrifugation
			5.3.5	 Sedimentation
		5.4	 Bioactive Compounds from Marine Algae and Their Biological Activity
			5.4.1	 Polysaccharides
			5.4.2	 Proteins and Amino Acids
			5.4.3	 Lipids
			5.4.4	 Vitamins and Minerals
			5.4.5	 Pigments
			5.4.6	 Marine Algae-Based Fine Chemicals
				5.4.6.1	 Carotenoids
				5.4.6.2	 Antioxidants
				5.4.6.3	 Phenols
				5.4.6.4	 Minerals
		5.5	 The Importance of Marine Algae
			5.5.1	 Edible and Poisonous Algae
			5.5.2	 Anticancer Activity of Marine Algae
				5.5.2.1	 MAPs Inhibit the Proliferation of Cancer Cells
				5.5.2.2	 MAPs Induce Apoptosis in Cancer Cells
			5.5.3	 Antioxidants Property of Marine Algae
			5.5.4	 Anti-Obesity Properties of Marine Algae
			5.5.5	 Anti-Diabetic Properties of Marine Algae Anti-Obesity Properties of Marine Algae
			5.5.6	 Antiviral Application of Marine Alga
			5.5.7	 Antibacterial/Antifungal Application of Marine Algae
			5.5.8	 Marine Algae Application in Cosmetics
				5.5.8.1	 Sunscreen
				5.5.8.2	 Moisturizers
				5.5.8.3	 Anti-Aging Products
				5.5.8.4	 Whitening
				5.5.8.5	 Hair Care
			5.5.9	 Others
			5.5.10	 Potential Uses of Marine Algae
				5.5.10.1	 Potential Use in Dermatology
					Algae Against Acne Vulgaris
				5.5.10.2	 Algae Protects Skin from UV Radiation Injury
				5.5.10.3	 Algae for Melanoma Treatments
		5.6	 Challenges and Ways Forward
		5.7	 Conclusion and Future Prospect
		References
	6: Antarctica Microbial Communities: Ecological and Industrial Importance
		6.1	 Antarctica: The No-Man’s Land
		6.2	 Microbial Diversity of Antarctic Territory
			6.2.1	 Terrestrial Microflora
			6.2.2	 Marine Microflora
			6.2.3	 Symbiotic Microbiome
		6.3	 Role of Microbes on the Ecology of Antarctica
			6.3.1	 Carbon Sequestration
		6.4	 Microbial Survival Strategies
			6.4.1	 Cold-Adapted Enzymes
			6.4.2	 Pool of Pigment
			6.4.3	 Ultraviolet (UV) Stress Tolerance Ability
			6.4.4	 Extracellular Polymer Formation
			6.4.5	 Antarctic Microorganisms: Bioplastic Formation, Microplastic/Plastic Degradation
		6.5	 Industrial Prospecting of Antarctic Microorganisms
		6.6	 Conclusion
		References
	7: Crustaceans: Microbes and Defense Mechanisms
		7.1	 Introduction
		7.2	 Crustaceans and Their Importance
		7.3	 Disease-Causing Microbes of Crustaceans
		7.4	 An Overview of Crustacean Immunity
			7.4.1	 Cellular Immunity in Crustaceans
			7.4.2	 Phagocytosis
			7.4.3	 Encapsulation
			7.4.4	 Clottable Proteins
			7.4.5	 Cytotoxicity
			7.4.6	 Humoral Immunity in Crustaceans
			7.4.7	 Agglutinins/Lectins
			7.4.8	 Antimicrobial Peptides
			7.4.9	 Prophenoloxidase System
		7.5	 Future Perspectives
		References
Part III: Marine Microorganisms and Environmental Bioremediation
	8: Pollution in Marine Ecosystem: Impact and Prevention
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Forms of Marine Pollution
		8.3	 A Quick Overview of Marine Contamination
		8.4	 Marine Pollution’s Effects
		8.5	 Pollution’s Current and Future Effects on Marine Ecosystems Worldwide
		8.6	 Laws and Regulations
		8.7	 The Fourteenth Objective of the Sustainable Development Goals
		8.8	 Monitoring and Hazard Identification
		8.9	 New Methods to Combat Marine Pollution
		8.10	 Natural Remedies to Marine Pollution
		8.11	 Conclusion
		References
	9: Source and Effect of Oil Spills on Associated Microorganisms in Marine Aquatic Environment
		9.1	 Introduction
		9.2	 Oil Spill Event: The Fate of Oil
		9.3	 Impact of Oil Spill on Marine Life
			9.3.1	 Planktonic Organisms
			9.3.2	 Fishes
		9.4	 Impact of Oil Spill on Coastal Organisms
			9.4.1	 Macroorganisms
			9.4.2	 Microorganisms
		9.5	 Impact of Oil Spill on the Coastal Ecosystem
			9.5.1	 Beaches
			9.5.2	 Estuaries
			9.5.3	 River Delta
			9.5.4	 Salt Marsh
			9.5.5	 Mangroves
			9.5.6	 Impact on Offshore Ecosystem
		9.6	 Oil Degrading/Oil Resistant Microorganisms
		9.7	 Treatment of Oil Spills
			9.7.1	 Treatment of Oil Spills Using Microorganisms
			9.7.2	 Current Status of Research Work
		References
	10: Heavy Metal Pollution in Water: Cause and Remediation Strategies
		10.1	 Water Pollution
		10.2	 Heavy Metals
		10.3	 Bibliometric Analysis
		10.4	 Remediation
			10.4.1	 Precipitation
			10.4.2	 Electrochemical Methods
			10.4.3	 Membrane-Based Methods
				10.4.3.1	 Micro and Ultrafiltration Membranes
				10.4.3.2	 Nanofiltration Membranes
				10.4.3.3	 Reverse Osmosis Membranes
				10.4.3.4	 Supported Liquid Membranes
				10.4.3.5	 Electrodialysis
			10.4.4	 Phytoremediation and Microbiological Interactions
				10.4.4.1	 Phytoremediation Mechanisms
				10.4.4.2	 Interactions of Plants with Microorganisms
			10.4.5	 Treatment Wetlands
			10.4.6	 Adsorption
			10.4.7	 Bioremediation
			10.4.8	 Novel/Recent Methods
				10.4.8.1	 Biofiltration
				10.4.8.2	 Forward Osmosis
				10.4.8.3	 Novel Nanomaterials
		10.5	 Challenges in Heavy Metal Pollution in Water
		10.6	 Conclusions
		References
	11: Responses of Marine Fungi to Heavy Metal Contamination
		11.1	 Introduction
		11.2	 Marine Heavy Metal Contamination Sources
		11.3	 Risks of Heavy Metals to the Marine Life Forms
		11.4	 Biological Removal of Heavy Metals by Marine Fungi
		11.5	 Heavy Metals Removal Strategies by Fungi
		11.6	 Responses of Fungi to Heavy Metal Contamination
		11.7	 Conclusion
		References
	12: Microplastic Pollution in Marine Ecosystem and Its Remediation
		12.1	 Introduction
		12.2	 Microplastic Pollution in Marine Ecosystem and Its Impact
		12.3	 Mechanisms of Plastic Degradation by Microbes
		12.4	 Microplastic Remediation Strategies
		12.5	 Challenges in Developing Microplastic Bioremediation Strategies
		12.6	 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	13: Microplastic Pollution in Aquatic Environment: Ecotoxicological Effects and Bioremediation Prospects
		13.1	 Introduction
		13.2	 Classification of Microplastics
			13.2.1	 Based on Size
			13.2.2	 Classification According to Origin
				13.2.2.1	 Primary Microplastics
				13.2.2.2	 Secondary Microplastics
		13.3	 Distribution of Microplastic in Aquatic Environment
		13.4	 Degradation of Plastic in Environment
			13.4.1	 Abiotic Degradation of Plastic
				13.4.1.1	 Photo-oxidation of Plastic
				13.4.1.2	 Thermal Degradation of Macroplastics
				13.4.1.3	 Chemical Degradation of Macroplastics
				13.4.1.4	 Mechanical Degradation of Macroplastics
			13.4.2	 Biotic Degradation of Macroplastics
		13.5	 Sources of Microplastics in Aquatic Ecosystem and Transport Route
		13.6	 Ecotoxicological Impacts of Microplastics on Aquatic Ecosystem
			13.6.1	 Impact on Aquatic Organisms
			13.6.2	 Toxicity from Contaminants Associated with Plastic
		13.7	 Bioremediation Aspects of Microplastics
		13.8	 Development of Regulations and Policies
		13.9	 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	14: Biodegradation of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals Using Marine Microorganisms
		14.1	 Introduction
		14.2	 A General Outline of EDCs and Their Hazardous Effects
			14.2.1	 Natural Substances
			14.2.2	 Persistent Organic Pollutants
			14.2.3	 Pesticides
			14.2.4	 Plasticizers
			14.2.5	 Drugs
		14.3	 Marine Microorganisms (Diversity and Distribution)
			14.3.1	 Bacteria and Archaebacteria
			14.3.2	 Viruses
			14.3.3	 Fungi
			14.3.4	 Algae
			14.3.5	 Protozoa
		14.4	 Biochemical Aspects of the Biodegradation of EDCs by Microorganisms
			14.4.1	 General Biochemical Aspects of Xenobiotics Degradation
			14.4.2	 Microorganisms for the Treatment of EDCs
				14.4.2.1	 Biodegradation of EDCs by Marine Bacteria and Fungi
				14.4.2.2	 Biodegradation of EDCs by Marine Microalgae
		14.5	 Conclusion
		References
	15: Bioreactors for Bioremediation of Polluted Water
		15.1	 Introduction
		15.2	 Main Water Pollutants
		15.3	 Applied Bioreactors for Bioremediation of Polluted Water
			15.3.1	 Hydrocarbon-Polluted Water
			15.3.2	 Plastic-Polluted Water
			15.3.3	 Metal-Polluted Water
			15.3.4	 Pesticide-Polluted Water
		15.4	 Biotechnology to Remediate Marine Ecosystems: A Contribution to the Realization of Human Rights
		15.5	 Conclusions
		References
Part IV: Others Applications and Perspectives
	16: Industrial Importance of Marine Algae
		16.1	 Introduction
		16.2	 Natural Algal Products and Biological Significance
		16.3	 High-Quality Commercial Bioactive Natural Products
			16.3.1	 Antioxidants
			16.3.2	 Cosmetics
			16.3.3	 Antifungal Properties
			16.3.4	 Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Agents
		16.4	 Biotransformation of Arsenic in Algal Cells
		16.5	 Classification of Algae
		16.6	 Conclusion
		References
	17: Sargassum-Derived Agents for Potential Cosmetic Applications
		17.1	 Introduction
		17.2	 Major Constituents
			17.2.1	 Fucoidan
			17.2.2	 Fucoxanthin
			17.2.3	 Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids (MAAs)
			17.2.4	 Phlorotannins
		17.3	 Effect of Sargassum Treatment on Skin
		17.4	 Future Scope
		17.5	 Conclusion
		References
	18: Utilization of Seaweed as Partial Replacement to the Fish Meal in Aquaculture Diets
		18.1	 Introduction
		18.2	 Habitat
		18.3	 Distribution
		18.4	 Seaweed Classification
			18.4.1	 Green Seaweed
			18.4.2	 Brown Seaweed
			18.4.3	 Red Seaweed
		18.5	 Seaweed: The “Super-Food”
		18.6	 Biochemical Property of Seaweed
		18.7	 Importance of Seaweed in Fish Culture
			18.7.1	 Fish Meal Substitution
			18.7.2	 Importance of Seaweed in Aquaculture
		18.8	 Methodology for Seaweed Meal
			18.8.1	 Collection of Feed Components
			18.8.2	 Sampling of Seaweed
			18.8.3	 Processing of Seaweed Powder
			18.8.4	 Pellet Feed Preparation
				18.8.4.1	 Grinding of the Ingredients
				18.8.4.2	 Mixing Of Feed Powder
				18.8.4.3	 Steam Cooking with Feed Mixer
				18.8.4.4	 Inclusion of Vitamin, Cod Liver Oil, and Egg
				18.8.4.5	 Preparation of Pellet and Drying
			18.8.5	 Feed Quality Check
			18.8.6	 Preparation of Experimental Feed
		18.9	 Conclusion
		References
	19: Nanobiotechnology of Marine Organisms: Mechanisms and Applications
		19.1	 Introduction
		19.2	 Bacteria
		19.3	 Cyanobacteria
		19.4	 Fungi and Yeast
		19.5	 Algae
		19.6	 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	20: Bioactive Compounds from Marine Water Ecosystem
		20.1	 By-Products, World Market, and Economic Impact
			20.1.1	 Sterilized Octopus’ Arms
			20.1.2	 Sausages Made with Octopus By-Products
			20.1.3	 Dried Octopus
			20.1.4	 Octopus Cooking (Heat Treatment)
			20.1.5	 Octopus Collagens
		20.2	 Collagen: Characteristics, Sources and Extraction Methods
			20.2.1	 Characteristics
			20.2.2	 Sources
			20.2.3	 Extraction Methods
		20.3	 Gelatin
			20.3.1	 Chemical Composition and Structure
			20.3.2	 General Process for Obtaining Gelatin
			20.3.3	 Applications
		20.4	 Peptides with Biological Activity
			20.4.1	 Methodologies for Obtaining PBA: A Strategic Approach
			20.4.2	 Enzymatic Digestion By In Vitro Enzyme Hydrolysis and Microbial Fermentation
			20.4.3	 Extraction and Isolation of PBAs
			20.4.4	 Functional and Nutraceutical PBAs
			20.4.5	 Mode of Action
			20.4.6	 Potential Risks of Protein Hydrolysates and PBA
		20.5	 World Industry Trends: Collagen, Gelatin and Peptides
			20.5.1	 Collagen
			20.5.2	 Gelatin
			20.5.3	 Collagen Peptides
		20.6	 Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	21: Marine Fish Microbiome: Current Status and Future Perspectives
		21.1	 Introduction
		21.2	 Importance of Marine Fish as Food and Their Microbiome
		21.3	 Marine Fishes and Microbiome
			21.3.1	 Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus)
			21.3.2	 Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua)
			21.3.3	 Atlantic Halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus)
			21.3.4	 Atlantic Mackerel (Scomber scombrus)
			21.3.5	 Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)
			21.3.6	 Atlantic Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis)
			21.3.7	 Baltic Herring (Clupea harengus)
			21.3.8	 Black Rock Cod Fish (Notothenia coriiceps) and Blackfin Icefish (Chaenocephalus aceratu)
			21.3.9	 Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix)
			21.3.10	 Brown Trout (Salmo trutta)
			21.3.11	 Cardinalfishe (Apogonidae) and Damselfish (Pomacentridae)
			21.3.12	 Chlorophthalmus albatrossis, Helicolenus hilgendorfi, and Glossanodon semifasciatus
			21.3.13	 European Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)
			21.3.14	 Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata)
			21.3.15	 Grass Puffer (Takifugu niphobles)
			21.3.16	 Gulf Pipefishe (Syngnathus scovelli)
			21.3.17	 Long-Jawed Mudsucker (Gillichthys mirabilis)
			21.3.18	 Mariana Trench (Pseudoliparis swirei) and Kermadec Trench (Notoliparis kermadecensis)
			21.3.19	 Mugil cephalus
			21.3.20	 Orange-Spotted Grouper (Epinephelus coioides)
			21.3.21	 Parrot Fish (Chlorurus sordidus)
			21.3.22	 Pinfish (Lagodon rhomboides)
			21.3.23	 Red Drum (Sciaenops ocellatus)
			21.3.24	 Red Snapper (Lutjanus campechanus)
			21.3.25	 Sardines (Sardinella longiceps)
			21.3.26	 Pacific Chub Mackerel (Scomber japonicus)
			21.3.27	 Siberian Sturgeon (Acipenser baerii)
			21.3.28	 Southern Flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma)
			21.3.29	 Speckled Trout (Cynoscion nebulosus)
			21.3.30	 Striped Eel Catfish (Plotosus lineatus)
			21.3.31	 Surgeon Fish (Acanthurus nigricans)
			21.3.32	 Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)
			21.3.33	 Zebraperch (Hermosilla azurea)
		21.4	 Unexplored Marine Fish Species
		21.5	 Future Perspectives
			21.5.1	 Microbiome in Adopting to Different Environments
			21.5.2	 Microbiome Extends Host Evolutionary Potential
			21.5.3	 Bioindicators of Environmental Pollution
			21.5.4	 Marine Fish Microbiome as Probiotics
			21.5.5	 Antibiotic Resistance Study in Microbes Isolated from Marine Fishes
			21.5.6	 Microbe-Driven Marine Carbon Cycling Research
			21.5.7	 Gut Bacteria Are Essential for Development of Social Behavior in Fish
		21.6	 Conclusion
		References