Current Research Trends and Applications in Waste Management

Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Introductory Chapters
	1: Emerging Frontiers of Microbes as Liquid Waste Recycler
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 What Is Liquid Waste?
			1.2.1 Sources of Liquid Wastes and Their Pollutants
				1.2.1.1 Industrial Waste
				1.2.1.2 Manufacturing Waste
				1.2.1.3 Agriculture and Dairy
					Agrochemical
					Pesticides
				1.2.1.4 Energy Production Using Fossil Fuels
					Radioactive Wastes
				1.2.1.5 Transport
				1.2.1.6 House Building and Domestic Activities
		1.3 What Is the Problem Arising from Liquid Waste with Their Static Data?
			1.3.1 Why We Focus on Liquid Waste and How It Is Treated
			1.3.2 Conventional and Advanced Methods for Liquid Wastewater
				1.3.2.1 Coagulation and Flocculation
				1.3.2.2 Precipitation
				1.3.2.3 Ion-Exchange
				1.3.2.4 Adsorption
				1.3.2.5 Membrane Filtration
					Ultrafiltration (UF)
					Reverse Osmosis (RO)
					Nanofiltration (NF)
				1.3.2.6 Advanced Method for Liquid Wastewater
		1.4 Role of Microbes
			1.4.1 Aerobic Microbes
				1.4.1.1 Aerobic Oxidation
				1.4.1.2 Nitrification
				1.4.1.3 Denitrification
			1.4.2 Anaerobic Microbes
			1.4.3 Use of Mixed Microbial Culture
			1.4.4 Bioremediation
			1.4.5 Bioremediation by Bacterial Strains
		1.5 Role of Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) in Wastewater Treatment
			1.5.1 Basic Components of MFCs with Their Factors Affecting Efficiency
				1.5.1.1 Electrode Material
				1.5.1.2 pH Buffer and Electrolyte
				1.5.1.3 Proton Exchange Membrane (Salt Bridge)
				1.5.1.4 Operating Condition in the Anodic Chamber
				1.5.1.5 Operating Condition in the Cathodic Chamber
			1.5.2 Mechanisms of MFCs
			1.5.3 Types of MFCs
				1.5.3.1 Mediator MFCs
				1.5.3.2 Mediator-Less MFCs
			1.5.4 Research Organization on MFCs
				1.5.4.1 International Status
				1.5.4.2 National Status
			1.5.5 Application on Microbial Fuel Cell
				1.5.5.1 Wastewater Treatment
				1.5.5.2 Cleansing Contaminated Lakes and Rivers
				1.5.5.3 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Sensing
				1.5.5.4 Hydrogen Production
		1.6 Challenges of MFCs
		1.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects
			1.7.1 Conclusions
			1.7.2 Future Prospects
		References
	2: Municipal Wastewater Treatment by Microalgae with Simultaneous Resource Recovery: A Biorefinery Approach
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Recent Advancements in the Treatment of Municipal Wastewater by Microalgae
			2.2.1 Microalgal-Bacterial Process
			2.2.2 PSBR (Photo-Sequencing Batch Reactor)
			2.2.3 Supplementation of External Nutrient Source
			2.2.4 Membrane Photobioreactor
			2.2.5 Biofilm Technology
			2.2.6 Synchronization of Microalgae with Other Species
				2.2.6.1 Microalgae-Yeast Process
				2.2.6.2 Microalgae-Macrophytes Process
		2.3 Microalgal Biorefinery Perception
			2.3.1 Liquid Biofuels
				2.3.1.1 Bio-Oil
				2.3.1.2 Biodiesel
				2.3.1.3 Bioethanol
				2.3.1.4 Biobutanol
			2.3.2 Gaseous Biofuels
				2.3.2.1 Biohydrogen
				2.3.2.2 Biomethane
			2.3.3 Bioelectricity
		2.4 Environmental Effect of Bio-Refinery Products
			2.4.1 Carbon Footprinting
			2.4.2 Negative Emission
		2.5 Conclusion
		References
	3: An Economic and Sustainable Method of Bio-Ethanol Production from Agro-Waste: A Waste to Energy Approach
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
			3.2.1 Cellulose
			3.2.2 Hemicellulose
			3.2.3 Lignin
		3.3 Raw Material for Bioethanol Production
			3.3.1 Sugar-Based Raw Material
			3.3.2 Starch-Based Raw Material
			3.3.3 Lignocellulosic Raw Material
		3.4 Overview of Bioethanol Production from Lignocellulosic Agricultural Waste Materials
			3.4.1 Pretreatment
				3.4.1.1 Physical Treatment
					Milling
					Pyrolysis
					Irradiation
				3.4.1.2 Chemical Pretreatment
					Acid Pretreatment
					Alkali Pretreatment
					Organosolv Pretreatment
					Ozonolysis Pretreatment
					Wet-Oxidation Pretreatment
					Ionic-Liquid Pretreatment
				3.4.1.3 Physico-Chemical Pretreatment
					Steam Explosion
					Liquid Hot Water (LHW) Pretreatment
					Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX)
					Supercritical CO2 (SC-CO2) Explosion
				3.4.1.4 Biological Pretreatment
			3.4.2 Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass
				3.4.2.1 Concentrated-Acid Hydrolysis
				3.4.2.2 Dilute-Acid Hydrolysis
				3.4.2.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
			3.4.3 Fermentation
				3.4.3.1 Fermentation Using Yeast
				3.4.3.2 Fermentation Using Bacteria
			3.4.4 Strategies for Fermentation
				3.4.4.1 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF)
				3.4.4.2 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)
				3.4.4.3 Simultaneous Saccharification and Co-Fermentation (SSCF)
				3.4.4.4 Simultaneous Saccharification, Filtration, and Fermentation (SSFF)
				3.4.4.5 Consolidated Bioprocessing (CBP)
				3.4.4.6 Simultaneous Pretreatment, Saccharification, and Fermentation
		3.5 Ethanol Recovery
		3.6 Conclusions
		References
	4: Sewage and Wastewater Management to Combat Different Mosquito Vector Species
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Indian Scenario of Wastewater and Sewage Problem
		4.3 Relation of Water Pollution with Population and Rapid Industrialisation
		4.4 Sewage and Waste Water Management
		4.5 Different Breeding Habitats
		4.6 Common Vector-Borne Diseases in India
		4.7 Mosquito Control Techniques
			4.7.1 Chemical-Based Control Techniques
			4.7.2 Non-Chemical-Based Control Techniques
			4.7.3 Biocontrol Method
				4.7.3.1 Mosquito-Specific Bacteria
				4.7.3.2 Larvivorous Fishes
		4.8 Conclusion
		References
	5: Keratinase Role in Management of Poultry Waste
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 By-Products of the Poultry Industry
			5.2.1 Feathers
			5.2.2 Manure and Litter
			5.2.3 Waste-Containing Collagen
			5.2.4 Miscellaneous By-Products
		5.3 Keratin
			5.3.1 α-Keratin
			5.3.2 β-Keratin
			5.3.3 Hard Keratin and Soft Keratin
		5.4 Keratinase
		5.5 Microbial Diversity of Keratinase
		5.6 Role of Keratinase Enzyme in Waste Management and Production of Valuable Products
			5.6.1 Animal Feed
			5.6.2 Bio-Fertilizers
			5.6.3 Bioactive Peptides
			5.6.4 Biomedical Devices
			5.6.5 Biodetergents
			5.6.6 Bioremediation and Biopesticide
			5.6.7 Biomedicine
			5.6.8 Bioplastics
		5.7 Future Scope
		5.8 Conclusions
		References
	6: Biomedical Waste: Impact on Environment and Its Management in Health Care Facilities
		6.1 Introduction
			6.1.1 Definition of Biomedical Waste
			6.1.2 Generation of Biomedical Waste
			6.1.3 Categories of Biomedical Waste
		6.2 Biomedical Waste Management Strategies
			6.2.1 Biomedical Waste Segregation and Storage
			6.2.2 Biomedical Waste Handling and Transportation
			6.2.3 Treatment and Disposal of Biomedical Waste
				6.2.3.1 Chemical Processes
				6.2.3.2 Biological Processes
				6.2.3.3 Mechanical Processes
				6.2.3.4 Thermal Processes
					Autoclaving
					Microwave
					Incineration
					Hydroclaving
					Thermal Plasma
				6.2.3.5 Irradiation Processes
		6.3 Risks to Environment and Health
		6.4 Biomedical Waste Management Strategies
		6.5 Handling of Biomedical Wastes During COVID-19 Pandemic
		6.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
		References
Part II: Microbial Approach in Bioenergy Production
	7: Microbial Intervention in Waste Remediation for Bio-Energy Production
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Potential Biofuels Transformed from Wastes
			7.2.1 Types of Biofuels
				7.2.1.1 Solid Biomass
				7.2.1.2 Liquid Biofuels
				7.2.1.3 Gaseous Biofuels
		7.3 Substrates for Biofuel Production
			7.3.1 Biofuels from Different Types of Biomass
			7.3.2 Pre-treatment of Waste Prior to Microbial Treatment
				7.3.2.1 Pre-treatment
				7.3.2.2 Hydrolysis/Saccharification
				7.3.2.3 Fermentation
				7.3.2.4 Purification
		7.4 Biological Agent in Biofuel Production from Waste
			7.4.1 Bacteria
			7.4.2 Yeast/Fungi
			7.4.3 Photosynthetic Microorganisms
		7.5 Waste Product Impact on Climate
			7.5.1 Impacts of Waste Disposal on the Environment
			7.5.2 Non-biodegradable Wastes
		7.6 Challenges in Biofuels Production from Waste
		7.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	8: Role of Microorganisms in Biogas Production from Animal Waste and Slurries
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Anaerobic Digestion and Biogas Production
		8.3 Stages of Biogas Production by the Anaerobic Digestion Process
			8.3.1 Hydrolysis
			8.3.2 Acidogenesis
			8.3.3 Acetogenesis
			8.3.4 Methanogenesis
		8.4 Anaerobic Digesters
			8.4.1 Fixed-Dome Digester
			8.4.2 Floating-Drum Digester
			8.4.3 Tubular Digester
		8.5 Microbes Involved in Biogas Production
			8.5.1 Microbes Involved in Hydrolysis and Acidogenesis
			8.5.2 Acetogenic Bacteria
			8.5.3 Methanogens
				8.5.3.1 Characteristics of the Methanogen Families, Substrates for Methanogenesis; Digester Input, and % of Biogas Produced
				8.5.3.2 Cooperation of Microorganisms in the Methane Fermentation Process
		8.6 Factors Affecting Biogas Production
			8.6.1 Temperature
			8.6.2 pH
			8.6.3 Nutrients Requirements
			8.6.4 C/N Ratio
			8.6.5 Agitation
			8.6.6 Water Content
			8.6.7 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
			8.6.8 Redox Potential
			8.6.9 Ammonia
			8.6.10 Organic Loading Rate (OLR)
			8.6.11 Volatile Fatty Acids
			8.6.12 Particle Size
			8.6.13 Inocula
		8.7 Benefits of Biogas Technology
			8.7.1 Reducing the Production of Greenhouse Gas
			8.7.2 Source for Renewable Energy
			8.7.3 Low Input of Water
			8.7.4 Contribution to the EU Environmental and Energy Goals
			8.7.5 Reduction of Waste
			8.7.6 As an Excellent Fertilizer
			8.7.7 Flexibility of Using Different Feedstock
			8.7.8 Reduced Odor and Flies
		8.8 Future Prospects of Biogas Technology
		References
	9: Bioelectricity Generation from Organic Waste Using Microbial Fuel Cell
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 MFC Working Principle and Electron Transfer
			9.2.1 Role of Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)
			9.2.2 Limitation in Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)
			9.2.3 Mediators and Non-mediator MFCs
				9.2.3.1 Mediator-Less or Direct Electron Transfer Between the Cell Surface and the Electrode
				9.2.3.2 Mediator or Indirect Electron Transfer Mediator
		9.3 Materials and Architectures of Different Types of MFC
			9.3.1 Double-Chambered Fuel (DCF)
			9.3.2 Single Chamber Fuel Cell (SCFC)
			9.3.3 Stacked MFC (SMFC)
			9.3.4 Magnetic Fields Ceramic Microbial Fuel Cell (CMFC)
			9.3.5 Plant Microbial Fuel Cell (P-MFC)
			9.3.6 Photosynthetic Microbial Fuel Cell (Photo-MFC)
		9.4 Electrodes
			9.4.1 Cathode Electrode
			9.4.2 Anode Electrode
			9.4.3 Membranes
				9.4.3.1 Cation Exchange Membrane (CEM)
				9.4.3.2 Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM)
				9.4.3.3 Bipolar Membranes (BPM)
		9.5 Factors Responsible That Affect Performance of Microbial Fuel Cell
			9.5.1 Effect of pH, Ionic Strength, and Temperature on Power Generation
			9.5.2 Microbes as Biocatalyst Used in MFC
			9.5.3 Organic Waste as Microbial Substrate
		9.6 Future Outlook and Conclusion
		References
	10: Bioremediation: Remedy for Emerging Environmental Pollutants
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Bioremediation
			10.2.1 In Situ Bioremediation
				10.2.1.1 Intrinsic Bioremediation
				10.2.1.2 Engineered Bioremediation
					Biosparging
					Bioventing
					Bioslurping
					Biostimulation
					Bioaugmentation
					Natural Attenuation
			10.2.2 Ex Situ Bioremediation
				10.2.2.1 Slurry Phase Bioremediation
				10.2.2.2 Solid Phase Bioremediation
					Biopiling
					Land Farming
					Compositing
					Biofilter
		10.3 Effects of Heavy Metals on the Environment
			10.3.1 Mechanism of Heavy Metal Remediation
		10.4 Potential Hazards of Textile Wastewater
			10.4.1 Treatment of Dyes
				10.4.1.1 Physicochemical Methods
				10.4.1.2 Biological Methods
		10.5 Degradation of Dyes by Bacterial Strains
		10.6 Mechanisms of Bacterial Dye Degradation
		10.7 Mechanisms of Fungal Dye Degradation
		10.8 Mechanisms of Algal Dye Degradation
		10.9 Mechanisms of Dye Degradation by Yeast
		10.10 Bioremediation Applications
		10.11 The Advantage of Bioremediation
		10.12 The Disadvantage of Bioremediation
		10.13 Conclusions
		References
	11: Rhizoremediation: A Plant-Microbe-Based Probiotic Science
		11.1 Introduction
			11.1.1 Concept and Definition
			11.1.2 History
		11.2 Role of Microorganisms for the Remediation of Pollutants
		11.3 Essential Factors for Rhizoremediation
			11.3.1 Prevalent Niche Microflora
			11.3.2 Availability of Contaminants
			11.3.3 Environmental Factors
				11.3.3.1 Nutrients
				11.3.3.2 pH
				11.3.3.3 Type of Soil
		11.4 Mechanism: Plant-Microbe Interactions
			11.4.1 Root Exudation and Colonization
			11.4.2 Regulation of Catabolic Gene Cascade
			11.4.3 Interacting with the Pollutants: Rhizobiome in Action
		11.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Rhizoremediation
		11.6 Cost-Effectiveness
		11.7 New Insights
		11.8 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Biotechnological Approach
	12: Microbial Fermentation System for the Production of Biopolymers and Bioenergy from Various Organic Wastes and By-Products
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Biodegradable Polymers (PHAs Production and Classification)
			12.2.1 PHA Production Using Suitable Substrate and Bacterial Strains
			12.2.2 Starch-Based Substrate
			12.2.3 PHAs Production Using Molasses and Sucrose as a Carbon Source
			12.2.4 Lignocellulosic Waste Material Used as a Substrate for PHAs
			12.2.5 Whey-Based Culture Media Used as a Substrate for PHAs
		12.3 Integrated Systems to Simultaneously Produce PHAs (Intracellular Products) and Biosurfactants (an Extracellular By-Produc...
		12.4 Bioenergy Manufacture Using Industrial and Agricultural Waste
			12.4.1 Biogas Production (Anaerobic Digestion)
			12.4.2 Biohydrogen Production
		12.5 Integrated Process Systems for Bioenergy Synthesis from Industrial and Agricultural Sustainable Substances
			12.5.1 Coupled Synthesis of PHAs and Bioenergy from Carbon-Based Wastes
		12.6 Conclusions
		References
	13: Nanotechnology: Opportunity and Challenges in Waste Management
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Waste Generation in India
			13.2.1 Waste-to-Energy in India
			13.2.2 Manufacturing Advancement and Chemistry
			13.2.3 Barriers and Changes Required to Improve Waste Management in India
		13.3 Nanomaterials for Waste Treatment
			13.3.1 Nanotechnology for Green Energy Production
			13.3.2 Nanotechnology for Management of Waste Materials
			13.3.3 Nanotechnology for Reuse and Waste Utilization
		13.4 Conclusion
		References
	14: `Omics´ Approaches for Structural and Functional Insights of `Waste to Energy´ Microbiome
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Microbiomes
		14.3 Waste and Energy
		14.4 `Omics´ Approaches for Waste to Energy Microbiome
			14.4.1 Metagenomics Technologies for EFW Microbiome
			14.4.2 Metatranscriptomics Technology for EFW Microbiome
			14.4.3 Metaproteomics Technology for EFW Microbiome
			14.4.4 Metabolomics Technology for EFW Microbiome
			14.4.5 Need of Computational Algorithms for `Omics´ Analysis
		14.5 Non-omics Technologies for EFW Microbiome
		14.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook
		References
Corrections to: Current Research Trends and Applications in Waste Management
	Correction to: B. K. Kashyap, M. K. Solanki (eds.), Current Research Trends and Applications in Waste Management, https://doi....