Cryogenics: Fundamentals, Foundations and Applications

PRELIMS.pdf
	Acknowledgement
	Editor biographies
		Tom Bradshaw
		Beth Evans
		John Vandore
	Biographies of contributors
	List of contributors
CH001.pdf
	Chapter 1 Fundamentals of cryogenics
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 What do we mean by cryogenics?
		1.3 Role of cryogenics in the economy
		1.4 Target audience and how they will make use of this book
		1.5 Physical effects of cryogenics
		1.6 Role of cryogenics in medical applications
		1.7 Role of cryogenics in science
		1.8 Role of cryogenics in energy and the environment
		1.9 Brief resumé of the chapters
CH002.pdf
	Chapter 2 What is cryogenics?—UK perspective and brief history
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Brief history of cryogenics
		2.3 History of cryogenics in the UK
		2.4 Cryogenics industry in the UK
		2.5 Growth of the cryogenic industry in the UK
		2.6 Cryogenics in the UK economy
		2.7 The British Cryogenics Council
		References
CH003.pdf
	Chapter 3 Cryostat design
		3.1 Fundamentals of cryostat design
			3.1.1 Introduction
			3.1.2 Cooling methods
			3.1.3 Heat gains
			3.1.4 Types of cryostats
			3.1.5 Cryostat construction
			3.1.6 Sealing and leak detection
		3.2 Thermal balance and insulation techniques
			3.2.1 Introduction
			3.2.2 Heat flows
			3.2.3 Thermal modelling
			3.2.4 Managing uncertainty
		3.3 Insulation and isolation
			3.3.1 Introduction
			3.3.2 Multi-layer insulation (MLI)
		3.4 Material properties
			3.4.1 Introduction
			3.4.2 Thermal conductive properties
		3.5 Heat exchangers
			3.5.1 Introduction
			3.5.2 Summary and use in JT cryocoolers
		3.6 Introduction to temperature scales
			3.6.1 Introduction
			3.6.2 Description of the current scales in use: the ITS-90 and the PLTS-2000
			3.6.3 Scale realisation uncertainties
			3.6.4 The kelvin redefinition, the mise-en-pratique for the definition of the kelvin and the future of temperature measurement
		3.7 Practical thermometry
			3.7.1 Introduction
			3.7.2 Thermometer calibration
			3.7.3 Thermal and electrical stabilisation of temperature measurements
			3.7.4 Types of thermometers
		3.8 Cryogenic instrumentation
			3.8.1 Introduction
			3.8.2 Flow
			3.8.3 Pressure
			3.8.4 Strain
			3.8.5 Magnetic field
			3.8.6 Light sensors
			3.8.7 Motion sensors
			3.8.8 Liquid level measurement
		References
CH004.pdf
	Chapter 4 Closed cycle refrigerators
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 The imperative for CCRs
			4.2.1 Stirling engine
		4.3 Gifford McMahon cryocoolers
			4.3.1 Use with superconducting magnets
		4.4 Pulse tube refrigerators
		4.5 Thermoacoustic refrigerators
		4.6 Joule–Thomson refrigerators
		4.7 Vapour compression refrigerators
			4.7.1 Standard vapour compression refrigerator
			4.7.2 Cascade refrigerators
			4.7.3 Refrigerants
			4.7.4 Refrigerator design
		4.8 Turbo Brayton refrigerators
		4.9 Thermoelectric coolers
		4.10 The Carnot cycle
		4.11 Summary
		References
CH005.pdf
	Chapter 5 Very low temperature techniques
		5.1 Dilution refrigerators
			5.1.1 Introduction
			5.1.2 Theoretical description
			5.1.3 Practical description
			5.1.4 Gas handling
			5.1.5 Low temperature environment and mixture condensation
			5.1.6 Heat exchangers
			5.1.7 Mixing chamber
			5.1.8 Thermometry, wiring and thermal anchoring
			5.1.9 Fixing incorrect fridge mixture
			5.1.10 Modern applications
			5.1.11 Quantum computation
			5.1.12 Quantum fluids and solids
			5.1.13 Cosmological phenomena
		5.2 Adiabatic demagnetisation—electronic and nuclear
			5.2.1 Introduction
			5.2.2 Principle of operation
			5.2.3 Theoretical description
			5.2.4 Practical description and limitations
			5.2.5 State-of-the-art
			5.2.6 Modern trends
		5.3 Helium evaporative sorption coolers
			5.3.1 Introduction
			5.3.2 Principle
			5.3.3 Basic sizing
			5.3.4 Sorption pumping
			5.3.5 Multi-stage systems
			5.3.6 Space applications
			5.3.7 Space-borne evaporative helium cooler
			5.3.8 Suspension system
			5.3.9 Gas gap heat switches
			5.3.10 Hybrid cooler
		5.4 Laser cooling and low temperatures in atomic physics
			5.4.1 Introduction
			5.4.2 Ion trapping
			5.4.3 Inductive cooling
			5.4.4 Sideband cooling
			5.4.5 Laser cooling
			5.4.6 Sympathetic cooling
			5.4.7 Neutral atom trapping
		References
CH006.pdf
	Chapter 6 Cryogenics in particle accelerators and fusion reactors
		6.1 Overview of requirements
			6.1.1 Introduction
			6.1.2 Cooling of superconducting magnets
			6.1.3 Cooling of superconducting radio frequency cavities
			6.1.4 Provision of dense pure fluids
			6.1.5 Provision of large clean vacuum spaces
			6.1.6 Sample environments
		6.2 Distribution techniques
		6.3 Cryogenics for superconducting RF cavities
			6.3.1 Introduction
			6.3.2 SRF cavity theory and operation
			6.3.3 Vertical cavity testing
			6.3.4 Cryomodule integration and testing
		References
CH007.pdf
	Chapter 7 Propulsion, energy storage and renewables
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Electric aircraft and electric propulsion
			7.2.1 Introduction
			7.2.2 Electric propulsion issues
			7.2.3 Electrical power systems
			7.2.4 Cryogenic superconducting electric power systems
			7.2.5 Superconducting propulsion systems
			7.2.6 Cryogenic systems and fuel tanks
			7.2.7 Summary
			Acknowledgements
		7.3 Cryogenics in LNG and biomethane
			7.3.1 The UK perspective
			7.3.2 Storage and control
			7.3.3 Motive power
		7.4 Hydrogen—energy carrier of the future
		7.5 Peter Dearman’s liquid air engine
		7.6 Liquid air energy storage (LAES) and Highview Power’s ‘CRYOBattery’
			7.6.1 Introduction
			7.6.2 Highview LAES system
			7.6.3 Conclusions
		7.7 Looking to the future—Covid-19: pathway to a lasting legacy for clean cooling
			7.7.1 Introduction
			7.7.2 Systems approach to cooling
			7.7.3 Birmingham centre for cryogenic energy storage
		7.8 Superconducting electrical machines for wind turbines
			7.8.1 Wind turbine drivelines
			7.8.2 Driveline developments
			7.8.3 Offshore wind turbines in extreme environments
			7.8.4 Superconducting generator design features
			7.8.5 Superconducting bulk materials
			7.8.6 Summary
		References
CH008.pdf
	Chapter 8 Life science and healthcare
		8.1 Cryogenics and its application to the biological sciences
			8.1.1 Preserving biological materials in the laboratory
			8.1.2 Other applications
			8.1.3 Concluding remarks
		8.2 Cryogenic techniques in biological electron microscopy
			8.2.1 Electron microscopy sample preparation and the motivation for the use of cryo-fixation
			8.2.2 The development of cryo-EM and the current state-of-the-art
			8.2.3 The use of cryogenic techniques in correlative light and electron microscopy
			8.2.4 Challenges and future perspectives
		8.3 Cryosurgery
			8.3.1 History of cryosurgery
			8.3.2 Pre surgical device applications
			8.3.3 Early surgical device applications
			8.3.4 Modern day cryosurgical devices
			8.3.5 Liquefied gas cryosurgical applications
			8.3.6 Gas-based cryosurgical applications
			8.3.7 Liquefied gas cryosurgical devices
			8.3.8 Gas-based cryosurgical device
		8.4 Cryotherapy
			8.4.1 Cryochambers
			8.4.2 Definition and categorization of the cryotherapy devices
			8.4.3 The standard (Wroclaw-type) cryochamber
			8.4.4 Cryosauna
			8.4.5 Safety
		8.5 Cryogenics in proton and heavier-ion radiotherapy
			8.5.1 Rationale for proton radiotherapy
			8.5.2 Early history of proton radiotherapy
			8.5.3 Cryo-cooled superconducting technology in modern proton radiotherapy
			8.5.4 Heavier-ion radiotherapy
		References
CH009.pdf
	Chapter 9 Industrial applications
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Cryogenic condensation for solvent recovery
		9.3 Superconducting magnetic separation
			9.3.1 Magnetic separation, purpose and principles
			9.3.2 Basic concepts in magnetic separation
			9.3.3 Permanent magnets, drums
			9.3.4 Electric magnets, carousels, iron-enclosed pot magnets
			9.3.5 Advent of superconductive magnets
			9.3.6 Major market penetration with MRI magnets
			9.3.7 Application to magnetic separation
			9.3.8 First appearances of magnetic separators
			9.3.9 Cooling technologies for superconducting magnets, and new magnet materials
			9.3.10 Economic advantages/disadvantages
		9.4 Deep cryogenic treatment
		9.5 Applications of cryogenics in the food industry
		References