Crossroads and Cultures: A History of the World's Peoples, to 1450

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A Conversation with the Authors: The Story Behind Crossroads and Cultures
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BRIEF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Maps
Special Features
Acknowledgments
PART 1 The Ancient World, from Human Origins to 500 C.E.
	1 Peopling the World, To 4000 B.C.E.
		Backstory
		Human Origins
			Evolution of the Human Species
			Out of Africa
		Paleolithic Food Gatherers, 2,000,000 –9000 B.C.E.
			The Gatherer–Hunter Economy
			Life in Paleolithic Communities
		The First Neolithic Farmers, 9000–4000 B.C.E.
			The Origins of Agriculture
			Life in Neolithic Communities
		COUNTERPOINT Gatherer–Hunters by Choice: Aborigines of Australia
			Understanding the History of Aborigines
			A Lifestyle in Harmony with the Natural World
			The Conscious Choice to Gather and Hunt
			Religious Life and Social Organization
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		READING THE PAST Fossil Hunting
		SEEING THE PAST Paleolithic Statuettes of Women
		SEEING THE PAST Saharan Rock Art
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The People of Çatal Höyük
	2 Temples and Palaces: Birth of the City, 5000–1200 B.C.E.
		Backstory
		Origins of Urban Society: Mesopotamia, 5000–3200 B.C.E.
			The Environmental Challenge
			Irrigation and Its Impact
		The First Cities, 3200–1600 B.C.E.
			The Power of the Temple
			The Might of the Palace
			The New Order of Society
		City Life and Learning
			The Invention of Writing
			The Expansion of Knowledge
		The First International Order, 1600–1200 B.C.E.
			From City-States to Territorial States in the Eastern Mediterranean
			International Relations
			Kings and Commoners: An Unequal System
		COUNTERPOINT Egypt’s Distinct Path to Statehood
			Egypt’s Geography and Early History
			Egyptian Ideology of Kingship
			The New Culture of Statehood
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		SEEING THE PAST The Uruk Vase
		READING THE PAST Royal Inscriptions from Early Mesopotamia
		SEEING THE PAST The Palette of Narmer
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The Pyramid Builders of the Pharaohs
	3 Settlers and Migrants: The Creation of Statesin Asia, 5000–500 B.C.E.
		Backstory
		Early Agricultural Societies of South and East Asia, 5000–1000 B.C.E.
			Settled Farmers of the River Valleys
			Nomadic Herders of the Steppe
		The Indus Valley Culture, 2600–1900 B.C.E.
			Urban Society in the Indus Valley
			Harappan Crafts and Long-Distance Trade
			The End of the Indus Valley Culture
		Indo-European Migrations, 3000–1000 B.C.E.
			Indo-European Languages
			Indo-European Migrations
			Indo-European Speakers and Eurasian History
		India’s Vedic Age, 1500–500 B.C.E.
			Vedic Origins
			Rise of a New Society: Families, Clans, and Castes
			Vedic Religion
			Developments in Vedic Ideas
		The Early Chinese Dynasties, 2000–771 B.C.E.
			Re-Creating Early China: Literary Traditions and the Archaeological Record
			The Growth of States, 2000–1570 B.C.E.
			The Shang Dynasty and the Consolidation of Power, 1570–1027 B.C.E.
			The Early Zhou Dynasty and the Extension of Power, 1027–771 B.C.E.
		COUNTERPOINT The Oxus People: A Short-Lived Culture in Central Asia, 2100–1700 B.C.E.
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		SEEING THE PAST Inscribed Seals from the Indus Valley
		READING THE PAST The Upanishads
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOOD Chinese Diviners
		READING THE PAST The Chinese Book of Songs
	4 Creation of Empire: North Africa and Southwest Asia, 1550–330 B.C.E.
		Backstory
		Imperial Egypt and Nubia, 1550 B.C.E.–330 C.E
			The Imperial Might of New Kingdom Egypt, 1550–1070 B.C.E.
			Nubia’s Rise and Rule of Egypt, 1000–660 B.C.E.
			The Nubian Kingdom of Meroe, 400 B.C.E.–350 C.E.
		Rise and Fall of the Assyrian Empire, 900–612 B.C.E.
			Assyria: A Society as War Machine
			Imperial Governance
			Independence Preserved: Phoenicians in the Assyrian Empire
			Culture and Identity in the Assyrian Empire
			Failure of the Assyrian System
		The Persian Empire, 550–330 B.C.E.
			The Course of Empire
			Administering a Multicultural Empire
			Zoroastrianism in a Polytheistic World
		COUNTERPOINT Assimilation and Resistance: The Peoples of Israel and Judah
			Reconstructing the Histories of Israel and Judah
			Peoples Uprooted: Deportation and Exile
			Judean Resistance and Dispersal
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		READING THE PAST Akhenaten Praises His God, Aten
		SEEING THE PAST The Queen of Meroe in Battle
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Mesopotamian Astronomers
		READING THE PAST The God Yahweh and the People of Israel Form a Covenant
	5 The Greeks and the Wider World, 1200–30 B.C.E.
		Backstory
		The Development of Ancient Greek Culture, 1200–500 B.C.E.
			A Dark Age in Aegean Life and Culture, 1200–800 B.C.E.
			Greek Colonization of the Mediterranean, 800–500 B.C.E.
			Foreign Contacts and Influences
			Growth of the City-State in Archaic Greece, 800–500 B.C.E.
			A Cultural Reawakening
		The Persian Wars, Classical Greece, and the Concept of Cultural Difference, 500–338 B.C.E.
			Struggle Between Persia and Greece, 500–479 B.C.E.
			Athens’s Golden Age, 500–400 B.C.E.
			The Peloponnesian War and the End of Athenian Supremacy, 431–404 B.C.E.
			Daily Life in Classical Greece
		Hellenism: The Expansion of Greek Ideals and Institutions, 323–30 B.C.E.
			Creation of the Hellenistic Empires, 323–275 B.C.E.
			The Hellenistic City
			Hellenistic Learning and Livelihoods
		COUNTERPOINT The Celtic Peoples of the Atlantic Zone
			Who Were the Celts?
			Celtic Livelihoods
			Contacts with the Mediterranean
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		READING THE PAST Pericles Praises the Democratic Ideal
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Philosophers of Athens’s Golden Age
		READING THE PAST Semonides Catalogues the Evils of Women
		SEEING THE PAST The Vix Crater: A Greek Vessel in Northern France
	6 Peoples and World Empires: Classical India, the Kushan Empire, and China, 500 B.C.E.–500 C.E.
		Backstory
		India: Thinkers, Traders, and Courtly Cultures, 500 B.C.E.–500 C.E.
			Religious Ferment: The Rise of Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism
			Unity and Fragmentation: The Mauryan and Gupta Empires
			A Crossroads of Trade
			Literary and Scientific Flowering
		The Kushan Peoples of Central Asia, 100 B.C.E.–233 C.E.
			Foundations of Empire
			A Merging of Cultural Influences
			Farmers and Traders: The Kushan Economy
		China’s First Empires: The Qin and Han Dynasties, 221 B.C.E.–220 C.E.
			Intellectual Churning: Confucians, Daoists, and Legalists
			Unification and Centralization: The Worlds of Qin and Han
			Preserving and Spreading the Written Word
		COUNTERPOINT Tamil Kingdoms of South India
			Rise of the Tamil Kingdoms
			Tamil Culture and Society
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		READING THE PAST A Family of Chinese Historians Traces Early Kushan History
		SEEING THE PAST Kushan Coins
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Papermakers
		READING THE PAST Women in Han China
	7 The Unification of Western Eurasia, 500 B.C.E.–500 C.E.
		Backstory
		Rome: A Republican Center of Power, 500–27 B.C.E.
			From Village to World Empire
			Society and Politics in the Republic
			Failure of the Republic
		Rome: The Empire, 27 B.C.E.–212 C.E.
			Emperors and Armies
			The Provincial System and the Diffusion of Roman Culture
		Christianity: From Jewish Sect to Imperial Religion
			Religions in the Roman Empire
			Christianity’s Spread Outside the Jewish Community
			Toward a State Religion, 50–324 C.E.
			Institutionalization of the Christian Church
		Transformation of the Roman Empire, 200–500 C.E.
			Division Between East and West
			Economic Strains and Social Tensions
			Collapse in the West and Revitalization in the East
		COUNTERPOINT Rome’s Iranian Rivals in the Middle East
			The Parthians, 247 B.C.E.–224 C.E.
			The Sasanids, 224–651 C.E.
			A Tapestry of Cultures and Religions
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Roman Engineers
		SEEING THE PAST The Augustan Cameo Gem
		READING THE PAST A Young Woman Laments Her Premature Death
		READING THE PAST A Sasanid Account of the Wars with Rome
	8 Reading the Unwritten Record: Peoples of Africa, the Americas, and the Pacific Islands, 3000 B.C.E.–500 C.E.
		Backstory
		Peoples of Sub-Saharan Africa
			Early Hunters and Herders
			Bantu Migrations
		Peoples of the Americas
			The Olmecs, 1200–400 B.C.E.
			The Early Maya, 400 B.C.E.–250 C.E.
			Andean Peoples, 900 b.c.e.–600 C.E.
			Gatherer-Hunters of North America, 800 B.C.E.–400 C.E.
		Peoples of the Pacific Islands
			Agricultural Livelihoods
			Peopling the Islands
		COUNTERPOINT The Voiced and Voiceless in Ancient Literate Societies
			Uses of the Written Record
			The Voiceless Many
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Potters of Antiquity
		READING THE PAST The La Mojarra Stele
		SEEING THE PAST Early Maya Frescoes
PART 2 The Formation of Regional Societies, 500–1450 C.E.
	9 The Worlds of Christianity and Islam, 400–1000
		Backstory
		Multiple Christianities, 400–850
			The Christian Church in Byzantium
			Christianity in Asia and Africa
			Christian Communities in Western Europe
		Social and Political Renewal in the Post-Roman World, 400–850
			Crisis and Survival of the Byzantine Empire
			The Germanic Successor States in Western Europe
			Economic Contraction and Renewal in Christendom
			Origins of the Slavs and the Founding of Rus
		The Rise and Spread of Islam, 610–750
			The Prophet Muhammad and the Faith of Islam
			The Islamic Empire of the Umayyad Caliphs, 661–743
		From Unified Caliphate to Islamic Commonwealth, 750–1000
			Rise of the Abbasid Caliphs
			Rise of the Religious Scholars
			Collapse of the Unified Caliphate
		COUNTERPOINT The Norse Vikings: The New Barbarians
			The Viking Raids, 790–1020
			Norse Emigration and Colonization
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		SEEING THE PAST Mary as Mother of God
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Constantinople’s Silk Producers
		READING THE PAST Women and Property in Islam
		READING THE PAST The Pact of Umar
	10 Religion and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Asia, 400–1000
		Backstory
		Steppe Peoples and Settled Societies of Central Asia
			Nomad Conquerors of China: The Northern Wei, 386–534
			Rise of the Turks
			A Turkic Khanate in the West: The Khazars
		The Shaping of East Asia
			The Chinese Transformation of Buddhism
			Reunification of the Chinese Empire: The Sui Dynasty, 581–618
			The Power of Tang China, 618-907
			China and Its Neighbors
		The Consolidation of Hindu Society in India
			Land and Wealth
			Devotional Worship in Hinduism
			New Economic and Social Trends
			Court Society and Culture
		The Diffusion of Indian Traditions to Southeast Asia
			Commerce and Religious Change in Southeast Asia
			Religion and the Constitution of State Power
			Indian Religions in Southeast Asia: A Summing-up
		COUNTERPOINT Sogdian Traders in Central Asia and China
			A Robust Commercial Economy
			Breakdown of the Trade Network
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Tea Drinkers in Tang China
		READING THE PAST A Copper-Plate Land Grant Inscription
		SEEING THE PAST Borobudur: The World’s Largest Buddhist Monument
		READING THE PAST Letters from a Sogdian Castaway
	11 Societies and Networks in the Americas and the Pacific, 300–1200
		Backstory
		The Classical Age of Mesoamerica and Its Aftermath
			Political Power and Ideology in Mesoamerica
			The City-State of Teotihuacán
			The Maya City-State Network
			The Passing of Mesoamerica’s Classical Age
		City and State Building in the Andean Region
			States and Societies in the Coastal Lowlands
			States and Societies in the Andean Highlands
		Agrarian Societies in North America
			Pueblo Societies in the Southwestern Deserts
			Mound-Building Societies in the Eastern Woodlands
		Habitat and Adaptation in the Pacific Islands
			Polynesian Expansion
			Subsistence and Survival in the Pacific Islands
		COUNTERPOINT Social Complexity in Bougainville
			Bougainville’s Diverse Peoples
			The Historical Roots of Social Difference
		Conclusion
		Resources for Research
		Review
		READING THE PAST The Maya Hero Twins Vanquish the Lords of the Underworld
		SEEING THE PAST Images of Power in Tiwanaku Art
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The North American Mound Builders
		SEEING THE PAST Symbols of Fertility in Cahokian Sculpture
	12 The Rise of Commerce in Afro-Eurasia, 900–1300
		Backstory
		Agricultural Innovation and Diffusion
			Retrenchment and Renewal in Europe and Byzantium
			Agricultural Transformation in the Islamic World
			Rice Economies in Monsoon Asia
		Industrial Growth and the Money Economy
			Technological Change and Industrial Enterprise
			Expanding Circulation of Money
			Credit and the Invention of Paper Money
		Merchants and Trade Networks in Afro-Eurasia
			Merchant Partnerships and Long-Distance Trade
			Merchants and Rulers
			Maritime Traders in the Indian Ocean
			Trans-Saharan Traders
			Mediterranean and European Traders
		COUNTERPOINT Production, Tribute, and Trade in the Hawaiian Islands
			Settlement and Agriculture
			Exchange and Social Hierarchy
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		SEEING THE PAST Imitation and Innovation in Islamic Coinage
		READING THE PAST The Commenda Partnership Among Venetian Merchants
		READING THE PAST A Chinese Official’s Reflections on Managing Family Property
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The Mande Blacksmiths
	13 Centers of Learning and the Transmission of Culture, 900–1300
		Backstory
		Church and Universities in Latin Christendom
			Monastic Learning and Culture
			The Rise of Universities
			Vernacular Language and Literature
		Students and Scholars in Islamic Societies
			The Rise of Madrasas
			Sufi Mysticism and Sunni Orthodoxy
			Oral and Written Cultures in Islam
		The Cosmopolitan and Vernacular Realms in India and Southeast Asia
			The Cosmopolitan Realm of Sanskrit
			Rival States and Regional Identity
			Sufism and Society in the Delhi Sultanate
		Learning, Schools, and Print Culture in East Asia
			Civil Service Examinations and Schooling in Song China
			The Culture of Print in Song China
			Classical and Vernacular Traditions in East Asia
		COUNTERPOINT Writing and Political Power in Mesoamerica
			Mesoamerican Languages: Time, History, and Rulership
			The Legacy of Mesoamerican Languages
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Medical Professionals of Latin Christendom
		READING THE PAST Ibn Khaldun on Study and Learning
		SEEING THE PAST A Revolution in Islamic Calligraphy
		READING THE PAST Lady Murasaki on Her Peers Among Women Writers
	14 Crusaders, Mongols, and Eurasian Integration, 1050–1350
		Backstory
		The Crusades and the Imperial Papacy, 1050–1350
			The Papal Monarchy
			The Crusades, 1095–1291
			Papal Supremacy and the Christian People
		The Making of Christian Europe, 1100–1350
			The Reconquest of Spain, 1085–1248
			Christianizing Eastern Europe, 1150–1350
		The Mongol World-Empire, 1100–1368
			Rise of the Mongols
			Creation and Division of the Mongol Empire, 1206–1259
			Qubilai Khan and the Yuan Empire in China, 1260–1368
		The Mongol Khanates and the Islamic World, 1240–1350
			Mongol Rule in Iran and Mesopotamia
			The Golden Horde and the Rise of Muscovy
			Retrenchment in the Islamic World: The Mamluk and Ottoman States
		COUNTERPOINT The “New Knighthood” of the Christian Military Orders
			The Templar Model and the Crusading Movement
			The Teutonic Knights and Christian Expansion in Eastern Europe
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		READING THE PAST A Muslim Courtier’s Encounters with the Franks
		READING THE PAST Bernard of Clairvaux’s Summons to the Wendish Crusade
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Mongol Women in the Household Economy and Public Life
	15 Collapse and Revivalin Afro-Eurasia, 1300–1450
		Backstory
		Fourteenth-Century Crisis and Renewal in Eurasia
			The “Great Mortality”: The Black Death of 1347–1350
			Rebuilding Societies in Western Europe, 1350–1492
			Ming China and the New Order in East Asia, 1368–1500
		Islam’s New Frontiers
			Islamic Spiritual Ferment in Central Asia, 1350–1500
			Ottoman Expansion and the Fall of Constantinople, 1354–1453
			Commerce and Culture in Islamic West Africa
			Advance of Islam in Maritime Southeast Asia
		The Global Bazaar
			Economic Prosperity and Maritime Trade in Asia, 1350–1450
			China’s Overseas Overture: The Voyages of Zheng He, 1405–1433
			Commerce and Culture in the Renaissance
		COUNTERPOINT Age of the Samurai in Japan, 1185–1450
			“The Low Overturning the High”
			The New Warrior Order
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		READING THE PAST A French Theologian’s View of the Black Death
		READING THE PAST A Spanish Ambassador’s Description of Samarkand
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS Urban Weavers in India
		SEEING THE PAST Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks
PART 3 The Early World, 1450–1750
	16 Empires and Alternatives in the Americas, 1430–1530
		Backstory
		Many Native Americas
		Tributes of Blood: The Aztec Empire, 1325–1521
			Humble Origins, Imperial Ambitions
			Enlarging and Supplying the Capital
			Holy Terror: Aztec Rule, Religion, and Warfare
			Daily Life Under the Aztecs
			The Limits of Holy Terror
		Tributes of Sweat: The Inca Empire, 1430–1532
			From Potato Farmers to Empire Builders
			The Great Apparatus: Inca Expansion and Religion
			Daily Life Under the Incas
			The Great Apparatus Breaks Down
		COUNTERPOINT The Peoples of North America’s Eastern Woodlands, 1450–1530
		Conclusion
		Notes
		Resources for Research
		Review
		SEEING THE PAST An Aztec Map of Tenochtitlán
		SEEING THE PAST The Coyolxauhqui Stone
		LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS The Aztec Midwife
		READING THE PAST An Andean Creation Story