Critical thinking, science, and pseudoscience : why we can't trust our brains

Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
Foreword: Brains, Hearts, Guts, and Genitals
Preface
	Reference
Acknowledgments
Share Critical Thinking, Science, and Pseudoscience: Why We Can’t Trust Our Brains
Chapter 1: Why Do We Need Critical Thinking?
	Knowledge and Empowerment
	Justification
	Relativism
	If Actions Matter, Beliefs Do Too
	Opinions, Beliefs, and Knowledge
		Opinions and Beliefs
		Knowledge
		Justification of Beliefs
	What’s the Point of Critical Thinking?
		The High-Ground Answer
		The Middle-Ground Answer
		The Low-Ground Answer
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 2: What Is Science?
	Hype Versus Hypotheses
	Science: Not Always “Common Sense”
	What Is Science?
	Building Blocks of the Scientific Method
	Scientific Reasoning
		An Example
	Induction and Deduction
	Verification and Falsification
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 3: What Is Pseudoscience?
	Why Is this a Problem?
	The Demarcation Problem
	Tips for Identifying Pseudoscience
		Sensationalism and Oversimplification
		Press Releases, Jargon, and “Churnalism”
		Conflicts of Interest
		Anecdotal Evidence
		Small and/or Unrepresentative Sample Sizes
		Cherry-Picking
		No Control Group, No Blind Testing
	The Limits of Science
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 4: What Is Critical Thinking?
	What Is a Skeptic?
	Optimal, Not Perfect, Decisions
	The Space of Reasons
		Argument and Argumentation
		Arguments and Nonarguments
	A Global Debate
	Critical Thinking—A Skeptic’s Guide
		Extraordinary Claims
		Falsifiability
		Occam’s Razor and Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses
		Fallacies
		Engaging With Fallacies
		Induction Versus Deduction
		Logic and Truth Preservation
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 5: Why Can’t We Trust Our Brains?
	The Logically Illogical Brain
		Confirmation Bias
		Belief Perseverance
		Hindsight Bias
		Representative Heuristic
		Availability Heuristic
		Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristics
	Getting Something from Nothing
		Backmasking
		The Face of a Martian
		Religious Imagery in Unusual Places
		Sports Curses and Jinxes
		Seeing Because of Believing
		Backmasking Unmasked
		Jesus, Martian, and Joseph!
		Statistical Unjinxing
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 6: Why Can’t We Trust Our World?
	Confirmation Bias and Motivated Reasoning
	The Backfire Effect
	Filter Bubbles and Echo Chambers
	Moral Panics and Dietary Hyperbole
		Is Sugar Addictive?
	Pressure to Publish Scientific Reseach and Press Releases
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 7: Aliens, Abductions, and UFOs
	Life Outside of Earth
	Aliens Throughout History
	Betty and Barney Hill’s Abduction
	Critical Thinking About Abduction Claims
	Ancient Aliens and Modern Crashes
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 8: Psychic Powers and Talking to the Dead
	Types of Psychic Powers
	PSI Research and the Rise of Parapsychology
	Critically Examining PSI Positive Research
	Fool Me Once, Shame on You Fool Me Twice, Shame on Me
	Death, Taxes, and Mediums Using Cold Reading
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 9: Unknown Animals and Cryptozoology
	Man-Apes in North America
		Brief History of Bigfoot Encounters
		Critical Thinking Applied to Bigfoot Evidence
	Living “Dinosaurs” in Africa and Scotland
		The Loch Ness Monster
		Mokele-Mbembe
		Critical Thinking About Nessie and Mokele-Mbembe
	Alien Goat Killers in Latin American and Beyond
	Cryptozoology—Science or Pseudoscience?
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 10: Evaluating Health Claims in Alternative Medicine
	Defining Terms and Levels of Evidence
		Evidence-Based Practice
		Levels of Evidence
		Changing Names and Kinds
	Global Use of CAM
	Placebos, Regressions, and Their Effects
		The Placebo Effect
		Regression to the Mean in Health
	The Blind Researching the Blind
	Why Is Cam So Popular?
	Tips for Avoiding Non-EBP in Health Care
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 11: Alternative Medicine for Physical Health
	Chiropractic Manipulations
		History and Background
		Research on Chiropractic
	Acupuncture
		History and Background
		Research on Acupuncture
	Homeopathy
		History and Background
		Research on Homeopathy
	Therapeutic Touch and Other Energy Therapies
		Research on Energy Therapies
	Natural Products and Supplements
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 12: Pseudoscience in Mental Health
	EBP in Psychology
	Autism Spectrum Disorder
		Autism and Vaccines
		Evidence Based Versus Pseudoscientific Treatments for Autism
	Trauma-Focused Therapies
		Critical Incident Stress Management
		Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
		“Energy” Trauma Therapies
	Substance Use Treatment
	Projective Testing
		Reliability and Validity
		Rorschach Inkblot Method
		Thematic Apperception Test
		Figure Drawings
		Conclusions About Projectives
	How to Choose a Good Mental Health Provider
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 13: The Relationship Between Science and Religion
	Relationships Between Science and Religion
	Science, Religion, and Beliefs in the Modern World
	Conclusions
	Questions for Reflection
	References
Chapter 14: Conclusions and Recommendations
	The Ideal Skeptic
	Encouraging Critical Thinking Via Grassroots Activism
	Resources
	References
Afterword: Science and Humility
	The Personality of the Scientist
	Distinguishing Science from Scientists
	The Essence of Science
	Science as a Self-Correcting Enterprise
	Science Versus Pseudoscience
	References
Index