Corrosion of Steel in Concrete Structures (Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering)

Front Cover
Corrosion of Steel in Concrete Structures
Corrosion of Steel in Concrete Structures
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
1 - An introduction to corrosion of engineering materials
	1.1 Introduction – the ubiquitous nature of corrosion
	1.2 Thermodynamics is on the side of corrosion
	1.3 Kinetics are on the side of the metals
	1.4 Forms of corrosion
		1.4.1 General corrosion
		1.4.2 Pitting corrosion
	1.5 A brief history of corrosion of reinforcing steel
	1.6 The magnitude of the corrosion issue in general
	1.7 Magnitude of corrosion issue specifically related to RC structures
	1.8 Conclusion
	References
2 - Principles of corrosion of steel in concrete structures
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Passivation/depassivation
			2.1.1.1 Semiconductive behavior of passive layer
			2.1.1.2 Reinforcing steel passivation time
		2.1.2 Chloride-induced corrosion
		2.1.3 Carbonation-induced corrosion
			2.1.3.1 Carbonation depth measurement
		2.1.4 Mechanism of corrosion in reinforced concrete
		2.1.5 The influence of concrete parameters on rebar corrosion
		2.1.6 Corrosion products
		2.1.7 Macrocell and microcell corrosion
		2.1.8 Corrosion under load
	References
3 - Assessing a concrete\'s resistance to chloride ion ingress using the formation factor
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Background
		3.2.1 Electrical tests in porous materials
		3.2.2 Nernst–Einstein Relationship
		3.2.3 Electrical tests in cementitious materials
		3.2.4 Differing levels of saturation
	3.3 Experimental techniques
		3.3.1 Concrete resistivity
			3.3.1.1 Surface configuration: Wenner Test
			3.3.1.2 Uniaxial configuration
			3.3.1.3 Embedded configuration
		3.3.2 Pore solution resistivity
			3.3.2.1 Experimental pore solution expression
			3.3.2.2 Theoretical pore solution
		3.3.3 Determining the formation factor
	3.4 Microstructural parameters
		3.4.1 Influence of mixture proportions
	3.5 Specifying formation factor
		3.5.1 Why measure formation factor
		3.5.2 Relating formation factor to life cycle
	3.6 Conclusions
	References
4 - Chloride corrosion threshold
	4.1 Background
		4.1.1 The concept
		4.1.2 The variability of CCT values
	4.2 Experimental laboratory tests
		4.2.1 Tests in synthetic concrete pore solution
		4.2.2 Tests in concrete and mortar
	4.3 Field tests
	4.4 The influence of concrete mix design and exposure conditions
	4.5 The CCT of corrosion-resistant grades of rebar
		4.5.1 Galvanized steel
		4.5.2 Low chromium steels (∼9% Cr & 3Cr12)
		4.5.3 Stainless steels
	4.6 The influence of the chloride cation
	4.7 Conclusions
	References
5 - Corrosion of prestress and posttension reinforced concrete bridges
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Materials
		5.2.1 Prestressing steel
		5.2.2 Prestressing components and materials
		5.2.3 Concrete, grouts and filler material
	5.3 Overview of corrosion mechanisms
		5.3.1 Pretensioned steel concrete
		5.3.2 Posttensioned steel concrete
	5.4 Overview of corrosion failures and recent corrosion problems
	5.5 Cathodic protection
	5.6 PT grout testing
	5.7 Closing remarks
	References
6 - Corrosion of stainless steel reinforcemnt in concrete
	6.1 Rationale for the use of stainless alloys as reinforcing bars in chloride-contaminated environments
	6.2 Experience to date with stainless rebar in the field
	6.3 Available grades of stainless rebar
	6.4 Experimental corrosion tests for stainless rebar
		6.4.1 ASTM A955 standard specification for deformed and plain stainless-steel bars for concrete reinforcement (ASTM, 2018)
		6.4.2 Modified EN 480–14 “rapid screening test”
		6.4.3 Other nonstandard tests
	6.5 Results to date on corrosion behavior of stainless rebar
		6.5.1 The influence of surface condition on corrosion initiation
		6.5.2 Critical chloride threshold level (CCT)
		6.5.3 Post-corrosion-initiation behavior and corrosion products
		6.5.4 Ranking of alloy grades
		6.5.5 Passive film investigations
	6.6 Conclusions
	References
7 - Corrosion of epoxy-coated steel in concrete
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Use
	7.3 Current specifications
	7.4 Specification changes
	7.5 Manufacture
	7.6 Fabrication
	7.7 Field handling
	7.8 Corrosion research
	7.9 Changes in agency specification of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel
	7.10 Summary
	7.11 Sources of further information
	References
8 - Galvanized steel reinforcement: recent developments and future opportunities
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Galvanized reinforcement
		8.2.1 Hot dip galvanizing
		8.2.2 Continuous galvanizing
	8.3 Laboratory studies
		8.3.1 Zinc in concrete
		8.3.2 Passivation of zinc
		8.3.3 Hydrogen evolution
		8.3.4 Carbonation
		8.3.5 Chlorides
		8.3.6 Coating behaviour
		8.3.7 Zinc corrosion products
	8.4 Field studies
	8.5 Design and fabrication
		8.5.1 Steel properties
		8.5.2 Design considerations
		8.5.3 Work practices
	8.6 Applications of galvanized reinforcement
	8.7 Future opportunities
	8.8 Summary
	8.9 Further information
	References
9 - Influence of the microstructure of the carbon steel reinforcing bar on its corrosion in concrete
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Heat-treatment
	9.2 Influence of steel microstructure on its corrosion behavior
		9.2.1 The role of intermetallic inclusions in steel microstructure on the corrosion performance
	9.3 Influence of steel surface microstructure of its corrosion in concrete
		9.3.1 Surface mechanical attrition
		9.3.2 Surface heat-treatment
	References
10 - Effect of different concrete materials on the corrosion of the embedded reinforcing steel
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Chloride ingress resistance
		10.2.1 Sources of chlorides
		10.2.2 Effects of mix design on chloride durability
			10.2.2.1 w/cm ratio
			10.2.2.2 Age at exposure
			10.2.2.3 Curing
			10.2.2.4 Supplementary cementitious materials
				Fly ash
				Slag
				Silica fume
				Metakaolin
				Binary and ternary blends
	10.3 Carbonation resistance
		10.3.1 Concrete mix design
			10.3.1.1 w/cm ratio
			10.3.1.2 Supplementary cementitious materials
		10.3.2 Curing and maturity
	10.4 Future trends
		10.4.1 Self-healing concrete
		10.4.2 Ultra-high-performance concrete
		10.4.3 Alternative binders
		10.4.4 Noncorrosive reinforcement
	10.5 Conclusions
	References
11 - Corrosion measurement and evaluation techniques of steel in concrete structures
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Half-cell potential technique
	11.3 Linear polarization resistance (LPR)
		11.3.1 Potentiostatic LPR (potentiostatic transient technique)
	11.4 Galvanostatic pulse technique
		11.4.1 Equipment with the guard ring
	11.5 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
		11.5.1 Data presentation
	11.6 Cyclic polarization
		11.6.1 Scan rate
	11.7 Cyclic voltammetry (CV)
	11.8 Mott-Schottky technique
		11.8.1 Potential range, potential rate, and appropriate frequency
	11.9 Corrosion sensors for field monitoring
		11.9.1 Corrosion potential and corrosion current density sensors
		11.9.2 Other sensors
	References
12 - Monitoring corrosion of steel in concrete structures
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Roles and concepts of monitoring
		12.2.1 The role of monitoring
		12.2.2 Automated versus manual measurements
	12.3 Parameters relevant for corrosion and types of sensors
		12.3.1 General remarks
		12.3.2 Steel potential
		12.3.3 Polarization resistance
		12.3.4 Macro-cell current
		12.3.5 Concrete resistivity
		12.3.6 Temperature
		12.3.7 Relative humidity (RH)
		12.3.8 Chloride concentration
		12.3.9 pH
	12.4 Interpretation of monitoring data
	12.5 Conclusions and outlook
	References
13 - Acoustic emission monitoring for corrosion damage detection and classification
	13.1 Overview of the acoustic emission technique
	13.2 Mechanism of corrosion detection using acoustic emission
	13.3 Case studies for corrosion detection using AE
	13.4 Corrosion classification using AE
	13.5 Small scale specimens
		13.5.1 Medium scale specimens
	13.6 Special considerations and potential applications in field
	13.7 Special considerations for wireless sensing
	13.8 Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
14 - Practical field implementation of corrosion measurement methods
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Half-cell potential
	14.3 Linear polarization resistance
	14.4 Galvanodynamic and potentiodynamic techniques
	14.5 Galvanostatic and potentiostatic techniques
	14.6 Coulostatic technique
	14.7 Connectionless electrical pulse response analysis (CEPRA)
	14.8 Practical aspects and case study
		14.8.1 Devices used
		14.8.2 Preparation
		14.8.3 Reporting
		14.8.4 Case study one
		14.8.5 Case study two
	References
15 - Corrosion protection methods of steel in concrete
	15.1 Cathodic protection
		15.1.1 Anode system in the impressed current method
		15.1.2 Monitoring system in the impressed current method
		15.1.3 Cathodic protection using embedded galvanic anodes (Liao, 2014)
		15.1.4 Negative impacts of cathodic protection in steel-reinforced concrete
	15.2 Electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE)
	15.3 Inhibitors
	References
16 - Modeling corrosion of steel in concrete
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Kinetics of steel corrosion in concrete
	16.3 Theoretical/numerical modeling of corrosion current density
	16.4 Environmental conditions and material/chemical properties of concrete around steel reinforcement
	16.5 Empirical models and other practical approaches for predicting corrosion current density
	16.6 Atomistic/molecular modeling to develop fundamental understanding
	16.7 Conclusions
	References
17 - Future trends in research on reinforcement corrosion
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Processes leading to reinforcement corrosion
		17.2.1 Carbonation
		17.2.2 Chloride ingress
			17.2.2.1 Transport phase
			17.2.2.2 Reaction
			17.2.2.3 Aging and changes in the concrete microstructure
			17.2.2.4 Testing
			17.2.2.5 Modeling
	17.3 Corrosion onset. Chloride threshold
	17.4 Corrosion propagation
	17.5 Modeling of service life
	17.6 Additional preventive measures
	17.7 Repair techniques
	17.8 Corrosion measurement techniques
	17.9 Final comments
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index
	A
	B
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	D
	E
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	G
	H
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	M
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	Q
	R
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	T
	U
	W
	X
	Z
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