Control of Human Parasitic Diseases

Cover......Page 1
Control of Human Parasitic Diseases......Page 4
Contributors to Volume 61......Page 6
Foreword......Page 10
Preface......Page 12
Contents......Page 14
Control of Human Parasitic Diseases: Context and Overview......Page 20
Concepts of Control, Elimination and Eradication......Page 22
Examples of Parasite Elimination and Vector ‘‘Eradication’’......Page 24
Control of Animal Reservoir Hosts......Page 26
Community Participation in Parasitic Disease Control......Page 27
Steps in a Control Programme......Page 30
Scaling up Control Programmes......Page 36
The Health Policy Environment......Page 37
Health Financing and Sector-Wide Approaches......Page 38
Public-Private Partnerships......Page 40
The Global Burden of Parasitic Diseases......Page 41
Integrated Control......Page 42
Evidence for the Value of Integrated Control......Page 45
The Cost-Effectiveness of Parasite Control......Page 46
Scaling Up Integrated Control......Page 47
Emerging Diseases......Page 48
Climate Change......Page 49
Epidemics of Parasitic Diseases......Page 50
Conclusions......Page 56
References......Page 57
Useful Websites:......Page 64
Malaria Chemotherapy......Page 66
Summary......Page 67
Mechanisms of Resistance......Page 68
Clinical Pharmacokinetics......Page 69
Adverse Effects and Adverse Interactions......Page 70
Mode of Action......Page 71
Mechanisms of Resistance......Page 72
Therapeutic Use......Page 73
Summary......Page 74
Therapeutic Use......Page 75
Summary......Page 76
Adverse Effects......Page 77
Mefloquine......Page 78
Atovaquone– Proguanil......Page 79
Primaquine......Page 80
Developing New Antimalarial Drugs......Page 81
Chemoprophylaxis......Page 82
Intermittent Presumptive Treatment (for Pregnant Women and infants)......Page 83
Background......Page 84
Dihydroartemisinin– Piperaquine (DHA–PQ)......Page 86
Case Management of Severe P. falciparum Malaria......Page 87
Conclusions......Page 90
References......Page 92
Useful Websites:......Page 95
Insecticide-Treated Nets......Page 96
Introduction......Page 97
Children and Adults......Page 98
Pregnant Women......Page 99
ITNs in Combination with Other Malaria Control Interventions......Page 102
Untreated Nets......Page 104
Mass Effect versus Individual Barrier Protection......Page 105
The Impact of ITNs on Other Diseases and Nuisance Insects......Page 108
Acquisition of Malarial Immunity......Page 109
ITNs Alone......Page 111
Cost-Effectiveness of ITNs......Page 115
Risk Assessment......Page 117
Monitoring and Impact of Insecticide Resistance......Page 118
Technological Advances......Page 120
Equity versus Sustainability......Page 123
Role of the Commercial Sector......Page 124
Who Should Pay?......Page 125
Role of ITNs Relative to IRS......Page 126
Subsidized Sales......Page 128
Free Goods, Including Vouchers......Page 130
Moving from Projects to Programmes: Going to Full Scale......Page 131
Current ITN Coverage......Page 132
Regional Level......Page 133
Conclusions and Needs......Page 135
References......Page 136
Control of Chagas Disease......Page 148
Introduction......Page 149
Technology and Strategy Development......Page 151
Cost-Effectiveness......Page 152
Organization......Page 153
Regional Coordination......Page 154
The Central American Initiative......Page 155
History and Political Framework......Page 156
Chagas Disease Vectors......Page 158
Control of Rhodnius prolixus......Page 162
Control of Triatoma dimidiata......Page 164
Organization and Management......Page 167
Efficient Geographic Coverage of Triatoma dimidiata Control......Page 170
Sustainable Vector Control via Integration of the Maintenance Phase......Page 173
Andean Region......Page 175
Mexico......Page 176
Conclusion......Page 177
References......Page 178
Human African Trypanosomiasis: Epidemiology and Control......Page 186
Introduction......Page 187
Disease Burden and Distribution......Page 189
The Vector—Tsetse Flies......Page 191
Wild Hosts......Page 193
Domestic hosts......Page 195
Microscopy......Page 197
CATT......Page 198
PCR......Page 199
T. b. gambiense......Page 200
Field Diagnostics: Realistic and Appropriate Technologies......Page 201
Treatment......Page 202
Historical Paradigms for Control: Biology and Necessity......Page 204
Approaches Adopted in West Africa......Page 206
Approaches Adopted in East Africa......Page 207
Overlap of T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense: Policy Implications......Page 208
Choice 1: Human Treatments......Page 209
Choice 2: Vector Control......Page 210
Choice 3: Animal Treatments for Human Health Benefit......Page 213
Government......Page 216
Community Control......Page 217
Third Parties......Page 218
Conclusions......Page 219
References......Page 221
Chemotherapy in the Treatment and Control of Leishmaniasis......Page 242
Introduction......Page 243
Epidemiology......Page 244
HIV–Leishmania co-infection......Page 248
Canine Leishmaniasis......Page 249
Control Components: Epidemiological Information, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention......Page 250
Pentavalent Antimonials......Page 259
Amphotericin B......Page 263
Miltefosine......Page 264
Paromomycin......Page 265
Treatments for CL......Page 266
Amphotericin B......Page 267
Other Treatments for CL......Page 268
Leishmania– HIV Co-infections and Secondary Prophylaxis......Page 269
Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis......Page 271
Pregnancy......Page 272
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis......Page 273
Test of Cure......Page 274
A Policy for Drug Resistance......Page 275
Elimination Programme......Page 278
Conclusions......Page 279
References......Page 280
Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease) Eradication......Page 294
Introduction......Page 295
Life Cycle......Page 296
Clinical Impact......Page 298
Where, Why, When, and Whom......Page 301
Genesis and Initial Efforts to Gain Traction on Eradicating the Disease......Page 305
Workshop on Opportunities to Control Dracunculiasis: 1982......Page 307
The First African Regional Conference on Dracunculiasis Eradication and First World Health Assembly Resolution......Page 308
The Carter Center......Page 309
Strategy for Eradication......Page 310
Interventions against Disease Transmission......Page 311
Reductions in Cases of Dracunculiasis......Page 320
Finishing the Job......Page 325
References......Page 326
Intervention for the Control of Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis in the Community......Page 330
Population-Based Interventions to Control Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis......Page 331
Intervention Package......Page 333
Regular Anthelminthic Treatment......Page 334
Health Education......Page 337
Sanitation......Page 338
School-Age Children......Page 340
Frequency of Treatment......Page 341
Targets......Page 342
Helminth Control through Schools......Page 344
Helminth Control through Community-Based Intervention......Page 345
Preschool Children......Page 346
School-Age Children......Page 347
Pregnant Women......Page 348
Cost of the Intervention......Page 349
Regular Chemotherapy......Page 350
Health Education......Page 351
Sanitation......Page 352
New Technology for Sustaining Deworming......Page 353
Scaling up Deworming for School-age Children......Page 355
Questions Needing Answers......Page 356
References......Page 358
Control of Onchocerciasis......Page 368
Introduction......Page 370
Life Cycle and Transmission......Page 371
Clinical Manifestations......Page 372
Distribution in the Americas......Page 373
Parasitological Diagnosis......Page 375
Immunodiagnosis......Page 376
Suramin and Diethylcarbamazine......Page 377
Ivermectin......Page 378
Impact of Ivermectin on Adult O. volvulus Parasites......Page 379
Moxidectin......Page 380
The Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa......Page 381
Vector Elimination/Eradication......Page 384
The Scale of Ivermectin Treatment......Page 385
APOC and OEPA......Page 386
Coverage......Page 388
CDTI......Page 389
Impact of Ivermectin on the Eye and Skin Lesions......Page 390
Impact on Transmission......Page 391
Ivermectin ‘‘Resistance’’......Page 392
Entomological Surveillance......Page 393
Epidemiological Surveillance......Page 395
Social and Economic Costs of the Disease......Page 396
Costs of the Programmes......Page 397
Future Challenges......Page 398
Ivermectin Treatment of Onchocerciasis in Areas that are Co-Endemic for Loa loa......Page 399
Ivermectin Distribution in Hypoendemic Areas......Page 400
Detection of Ivermectin Resistance......Page 401
Cessation of Ivermectin Distribution......Page 402
Managerial Challenges......Page 403
References......Page 404
Lymphatic Filariasis: Treatment, Control and Elimination......Page 414
Biological Barriers Imposed by the Parasite......Page 415
Social and Political Barriers to LF Elimination......Page 418
Biological Features of LF that Favour its Elimination......Page 419
Social (Historical) Considerations......Page 420
Technical Considerations: The Availability of Effective Tools (for Treatment, for Diagnosis)......Page 421
A Promising Strategy to Eliminate LF......Page 424
Scientific Underpinning......Page 429
Resources......Page 431
Political Will and Partnership......Page 432
Management......Page 434
Scope of Programme Implementation......Page 435
Impact on LF Transmission and Disease......Page 437
Ancillary Health Benefits......Page 443
Integrated Management of Public Health Programmes......Page 444
Raising Awareness of Global Health Issues and their Solutions......Page 445
Principal Challenges Now Facing the Global Programme to Eliminate LF......Page 446
Treating LF Infection in Individuals......Page 448
Treating the Disease in Individuals with LF......Page 451
The Future......Page 452
References......Page 453
Control of Cystic Echinococcosis/Hydatidosis: 1863-2002......Page 462
Introduction......Page 464
Life Cycle Biology of Echinococcus. granulosus......Page 465
Epidemiology of E. granulosus Transmission......Page 467
Iceland (1863–1960)......Page 469
New Zealand (1938–2002)......Page 473
Tasmania (1964–1996)......Page 475
Falkland Islands (1965–1997)......Page 478
Cyprus (1971–1985)......Page 479
Lessons Learned from Island Hydatid Control Programmes......Page 481
Slow-Track versus Fast-Track......Page 482
Options and Phases for Control of Cystic Hydatidosis......Page 485
Epidemiology of Cystic Echinococcosis in South America......Page 487
Hydatid Control Programmes in South America......Page 489
Hydatid Control in Chile, Regions XI (1982–1997) and XII (1979–1997)—Evidence of Success......Page 490
Hydatid Control in Argentina, Provinces of Neuquén (1970–1988) and Rio Negro (1980–1997)—Evidence of Success but Continued Transmission......Page 493
Hydatid Control in Uruguay (1965–2002)—Initial Failure followed by Evidence of Success......Page 496
Other Hydatid Control Programmes with No or Limited Success—Wales, Kenya, Sardinia......Page 497
Mid-Wales, UK (1983–1989)......Page 498
Northwest Turkana, Kenya (1983–2000)......Page 500
Sardinia (1960–1997)......Page 502
Epidemiological Modelling......Page 504
Ovine Hydatidosis......Page 506
Canine Echinococcosis......Page 508
Human Cystic Echinococcosis......Page 510
Vaccination against Echinococcus granulosus......Page 511
Options for Control of Echinococcus multilocularis......Page 513
Acknowledgements......Page 514
References......Page 515
Control of Taenia solium Cysticercosis/Taeniosis......Page 528
Introduction......Page 529
Occurrence......Page 532
Disease Burden......Page 534
Questioning and Self-Detection......Page 538
Stool Microscopy......Page 539
Copro-Antigen Detection ELISA......Page 540
Copro-DNA Assays......Page 541
Serology......Page 542
Biopsy of Subcutaneous Nodules......Page 543
Immunodiagnosis......Page 544
Lingual Examination......Page 547
Pig Carcass Inspection......Page 548
Immunodiagnosis......Page 549
Human Cysticercosis......Page 550
Porcine Cysticercosis......Page 552
Vaccination......Page 553
Surveillance and Reporting......Page 556
Prevention and Control......Page 557
Conclusions......Page 565
References......Page 566
Implementation of Human Schistosomiasis Control: Challenges and Prospects......Page 586
Life History and Transmission—Breaking the Life Cycle......Page 588
Historical Perspective—Successes and Failures......Page 590
Epidemiology and Distribution, GIS and Disease Prediction......Page 598
Water-Resource Developments......Page 600
Infection, Re-infection and Genetic Factors......Page 603
Current Control Objectives and Strategies—Global Persuasion......Page 605
Current Strategies to Reduce and Reverse Morbidity using Praziquantel......Page 606
Health Education......Page 609
Vaccines......Page 610
Overview and Progress......Page 611
Political Commitment......Page 616
Procurement of Praziquantel and Albendazole......Page 617
Towards Elimination of the Disease......Page 618
Integration with other Health Programmes......Page 622
The First Steps Towards Integration of Activities......Page 626
Achieving Sustainability......Page 627
Acknowledgements......Page 628
References......Page 629
Index......Page 642
Contents of Volumes in This Series......Page 674
Colour Plate Section......Page 682