Construction materials: their nature and behaviour

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 29
Acknowledgements......Page 38
Editors......Page 39
Contributors......Page 40
Part I: Fundamentals......Page 42
  1.1 Atomic structure......Page 43
   1.2.1 Ionic bonding......Page 46
   1.2.2 Covalent bonding......Page 47
   1.2.3 Metallic bonds......Page 49
   1.2.4 Van der Waals bonds and the hydrogen bond......Page 50
  1.3 Energy and entropy......Page 51
   1.3.2 Mixing......Page 52
   1.3.4 Free energy......Page 53
  1.4 Equilibrium and equilibrium diagrams......Page 54
   1.4.1 Single component diagrams......Page 55
   1.4.2 Two-component diagrams......Page 56
   1.4.3 Eutectic systems......Page 58
   1.4.4 Intermediate compounds......Page 59
  References......Page 61
  2.1 Stress, strain and stress–strain curves......Page 63
   2.2.1 The elastic moduli......Page 66
   2.2.2 Poisson’s ratio......Page 67
   2.2.3 Relationships between the elastic constants......Page 68
  2.3 Plastic deformation......Page 69
  2.4 Failure in tension......Page 71
  2.5 True stress and strain......Page 72
   2.6.2 Failure of brittle materials......Page 73
  2.7 Behaviour under constant load: Creep......Page 75
   2.8.1 Fatigue life and S/N curves......Page 77
   2.8.2 Cumulative fatigue damage: Miner’s rule......Page 79
  2.9 Impact loading......Page 80
  2.10 Variability, characteristic strength and the Weibull distribution......Page 81
   2.10.1 Descriptions of variability......Page 82
   2.10.2 Characteristic strength......Page 83
   2.10.3 The Weibull distribution......Page 85
  References......Page 86
  3.1 Crystal structure......Page 87
  3.2 Imperfection and impurities......Page 92
  3.3 Crystal growth and grain structure......Page 93
  3.4 Ceramics......Page 94
  3.5 Polymers......Page 96
  Reference......Page 98
  4.1 Theoretical strength......Page 99
  4.2 Fracture mechanics......Page 101
  Reference......Page 105
  5.1 Liquids......Page 107
  5.2 Viscoelastic behaviour......Page 109
  5.3 Gels and thixotropy......Page 111
  6.1 Surface energy......Page 113
  6.2 Wetting......Page 114
  6.3 Adhesives......Page 116
  6.4 Adsorption......Page 118
  6.5 Water of crystallisation......Page 119
  7.1 Electrical conductivity......Page 121
  7.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion......Page 122
  Example questions for Part I Fundamentals......Page 123
  Further reading for Part I Fundamentals......Page 125
Part II: Metals and alloys......Page 127
  8.2 Dislocation movement......Page 129
  8.4 Strengthening of metals......Page 131
   8.4.1 Grain size......Page 132
   8.4.4 Alloying......Page 133
   8.4.5 Quenching and tempering......Page 134
  References......Page 135
  9.2 Hot working......Page 137
   9.4.1 Welding......Page 139
   9.4.2 Brazing, soldering and gluing......Page 140
  Reference......Page 141
  10.1 Dry oxidation......Page 143
  10.3 The electromotive series......Page 144
   10.4.2 Concentration cell corrosion......Page 146
   10.5.1 Design......Page 147
   10.5.3 Cathodic protection......Page 148
  Reference......Page 149
  11.1 Extraction of iron......Page 151
  11.2 Iron–carbon equilibrium diagram......Page 152
  11.3 Cast irons......Page 154
  11.4 Steel......Page 155
   11.4.1 Hot-rolled structural steels......Page 156
   11.4.3 Stainless steel......Page 160
   11.4.4 Steel reinforcement for concrete......Page 161
   11.4.5 Prestressing steel......Page 162
  11.5 Recycling of steel......Page 163
  References......Page 164
  12.2 Aluminium alloys......Page 165
  12.3 Recycling of aluminium......Page 167
  Example questions for Part II Metals and alloys......Page 168
  Further reading for Part II Metals and alloys......Page 169
Part III: Concrete......Page 171
  13.1 Manufacture......Page 177
  13.2 Physical properties......Page 178
  13.3 Chemical composition......Page 179
  13.4 Hydration......Page 181
  13.5 Structure and strength of hcp......Page 187
  13.6 Water in hcp and drying shrinkage......Page 189
   13.7.3 White cement......Page 191
  13.8 Cement standards and nomenclature......Page 192
  References......Page 193
  14.1 Action and classification of admixtures......Page 195
  14.2 Plasticisers......Page 196
  14.3 Superplasticisers......Page 197
  14.4 Accelerators......Page 199
  14.5 Retarders......Page 200
  14.6 Air-entraining agents......Page 201
  14.7 Other types of admixtures......Page 202
  References......Page 203
 15. Additions......Page 205
  15.2 Common additions......Page 206
  15.3 Chemical composition and physical properties......Page 207
  15.4 Supply and specification......Page 208
   16.1.1 Manufacture and composition......Page 211
   16.1.2 Hydration and conversion......Page 212
   16.1.3 Uses......Page 213
  16.3 Geopolymer cements......Page 215
  References......Page 216
 17. Aggregates for concrete......Page 219
  17.2 Aggregate classification: Shape and size......Page 220
   17.3.2 Elastic properties and strength......Page 224
  References......Page 225
  18.1 General behaviour......Page 227
   18.2.1 Fundamental properties......Page 228
   18.2.2 Single-point tests......Page 229
  18.3 Factors affecting consistence......Page 233
  18.4 Loss of consistence......Page 234
  References......Page 235
   19.1.1 Segregation and bleeding......Page 237
   19.1.3 Plastic shrinkage......Page 238
   19.1.4 Methods of reducing segregation and bleed and their effects......Page 239
   19.3.2 Maturity......Page 240
   19.3.3 Heat of hydration effects......Page 242
  References......Page 245
   20.1.1 Drying shrinkage of hcp......Page 247
   20.1.2 Mechanisms of shrinkage and swelling......Page 249
    20.1.2.1 Capillary tension......Page 250
    20.1.2.3 Disjoining pressure......Page 251
    20.1.3.1 Effect of mix constituents and proportions......Page 252
    20.1.3.2 Effect of specimen geometry......Page 253
   20.1.4 Prediction of shrinkage......Page 254
  20.4 Thermal expansion......Page 255
   20.4.2 Thermal expansion of concrete......Page 256
   20.5.1 Elasticity of the hcp......Page 257
   20.5.2 Models for concrete behaviour......Page 258
    20.5.2.1 Model A: Phases in parallel......Page 259
    20.5.2.3 Model C: Combined......Page 260
   20.5.3 Measured stress–strain behaviour of concrete......Page 261
   20.5.4 Elastic modulus of concrete......Page 262
  20.6 Creep......Page 263
   20.6.1 Factors influencing creep......Page 265
    20.6.2.2 Structural adjustment......Page 266
  References......Page 267
   21.1.1 Compressive strength......Page 269
    21.1.2.1 Splitting test......Page 272
    21.1.2.2 Flexural test......Page 273
   21.1.3 Relationship between strength measurements......Page 274
   21.2.1 Transition/interface zone......Page 275
   21.2.2 Water/cement ratio......Page 276
   21.2.3 Age......Page 278
   21.2.5 Humidity......Page 279
   21.2.6 Aggregate properties, size and volume concentration......Page 280
  21.3 Strength of concrete containing additions......Page 281
   21.4.1 Development of microcracking......Page 283
   21.4.2 Creep rupture......Page 284
   21.4.3 The fracture mechanics approach......Page 285
  21.5 Strength under multiaxial loading......Page 286
  References......Page 287
   22.1.1 Specified concrete properties......Page 289
   22.1.3 Initial estimate of mix proportions......Page 290
   22.2.1 Target mean strength......Page 291
   22.2.4 Cement content......Page 292
   22.2.5 Total aggregate content......Page 293
   22.2.6 Fine and coarse aggregate content......Page 294
  22.3 Mix design with additions......Page 295
   22.4.2 Mixes with superplasticisers......Page 296
  References......Page 297
  23.1 Surface hardness: Rebound (or Schmidt) hammer test......Page 299
  23.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test......Page 301
  23.3 Resonant frequency test......Page 303
  23.4 Near-to-surface tests......Page 304
  References......Page 306
  24.1 Transport mechanisms through concrete......Page 307
   24.2.1 Permeability......Page 310
   24.2.2 Diffusivity......Page 313
   24.2.3 Sorptivity......Page 314
   24.3.1 Attack by sulphates......Page 316
   24.3.2 The thaumasite form of sulphate attack......Page 319
   24.3.3 Sea water attack......Page 320
   24.3.5 Alkali–aggregate and alkali–silica reaction......Page 321
   24.3.6 Frost attack: Freeze–thaw damage......Page 325
   24.3.7 Fire resistance......Page 327
  24.4 Durability of steel in concrete......Page 328
   24.4.1 General principles of the corrosion of the steel in concrete......Page 329
   24.4.2 Carbonation-induced corrosion......Page 330
   24.4.3 Chloride-induced corrosion......Page 332
  References......Page 335
  25.1 Lightweight aggregate concrete......Page 337
  25.2 High-density aggregate concrete......Page 338
  25.4 Sprayed concrete......Page 339
  25.5 High-strength concrete......Page 340
  25.6 Flowing concrete......Page 341
  25.7 Self-compacting concrete......Page 342
  25.8 Underwater concrete......Page 343
  25.9 Foamed concrete......Page 344
  References......Page 345
  26.2 Recycling of concrete after demolition......Page 347
  References......Page 349
  Example questions for Part III Concrete......Page 350
  Further reading for Part III Concrete......Page 352
Part IV: Polymers......Page 359
   27.1.2 Thermosetting polymers......Page 361
  27.2 Processing of thermoplastic polymers......Page 362
   27.2.5 Highly orientated grid sheets......Page 363
   27.3.2 Time-dependent characteristics......Page 364
   27.4.1 Sealants......Page 368
   27.4.2 Adhesives......Page 369
   27.4.4 Geosynthetics......Page 370
    27.4.4.3 Geo-linear elements......Page 371
  Bibliography......Page 372
  Example questions for Part IV Polymers......Page 374
  Further reading for Part IV Polymers......Page 375
Part V: Fibre composites......Page 377
  28.1 Glass fibres......Page 381
  28.2 Carbon fibres......Page 384
  28.3 Polymer fibres......Page 385
  28.4 Natural fibres......Page 386
  28.5 Steel fibres......Page 387
  28.6 Asbestos fibres......Page 388
  References......Page 389
  29.1 Volume fraction......Page 391
  29.2 Reinforcement elements......Page 392
   29.3.1 Fibre length and the critical length......Page 393
   29.3.2 Fibre orientation......Page 394
   29.3.3 Efficiency factors......Page 395
   29.3.4 Textile reinforcement......Page 396
  References......Page 398
  30.2 Fibre-reinforced concrete matrices......Page 399
  References......Page 400
   31.1.1 Coupling agents and surface treatments......Page 401
   31.2.1 Interfacial morphology and properties......Page 402
   31.2.2 Bonding......Page 403
  References......Page 404
   32.1.1 Longitudinal stiffness......Page 405
   32.1.2 Transverse stiffness......Page 406
   32.1.3 Intermediate behaviour, efficiency factors and composite strength......Page 407
  32.2 Complex composite behaviour......Page 408
  32.3 Laminate composite behaviour (frp)......Page 409
  32.4 Brittle matrix composite theory (frc)......Page 410
   32.4.2 Critical fibre volume fraction......Page 411
   32.4.3 Primary frc: ACK theory and multiple cracking......Page 413
   32.4.4 Post-cracking behaviour......Page 415
   32.4.5 Failure, post-peak behaviour and secondary frc......Page 416
   32.4.7 High modulus/high Vf behaviour......Page 417
   32.4.9 Crack suppression......Page 418
   32.4.10 Crack stabilisation......Page 419
   32.4.11 Fibre/matrix debonding......Page 421
  32.5 Typical mechanical properties......Page 422
  References......Page 424
   33.1.1 Manual processes for frp......Page 425
   33.1.2 Semi-automated processes for frp......Page 427
   33.1.3 Automated processes for frp......Page 428
   33.2.1 Cast premix......Page 429
   33.2.2 Sprayed premix......Page 430
   33.2.4 Hand lay-up......Page 431
   33.2.5 Automated systems......Page 432
  References......Page 433
   34.1.1 Structural systems......Page 435
   34.1.2 Rehabilitation systems......Page 437
   34.1.3 Concrete column confinement......Page 440
   34.1.4 Internal concrete reinforcement......Page 441
   34.1.5 Hybrid systems......Page 442
   34.1.6 Bridge enclosures......Page 443
   34.2.1 Architectural cladding: Glass-frc......Page 444
   34.2.2 Tunnel linings: Steel-frc and polymer-frc......Page 445
   34.2.3 Industrial flooring: Steel-frc and polymer-frc......Page 447
   34.2.5 Permanent formwork: Glass-frc......Page 449
  References......Page 450
 35. Durability......Page 453
   35.1.2 Temperature effects......Page 454
   35.1.5 Creep......Page 455
   35.1.8 Material degradation models for frp......Page 456
   35.2.1 Multifilament/microfibre frc......Page 457
   35.2.2 Monofilament/macrofibre frc......Page 458
   35.2.5 Continued matrix hydration......Page 459
   35.2.7 Modelling and service life prediction......Page 462
  References......Page 463
  36.1 Recycling of frp......Page 465
  References......Page 466
  Example questions for Part V Composites......Page 467
  Further reading for Part V Composites......Page 469
Part VI: Glass......Page 471
   37.1.2 Composition......Page 473
   37.1.4 Historical processes......Page 474
   37.1.6 Float glass......Page 475
  37.2 Coatings......Page 476
   37.2.4 Self-cleaning......Page 477
   37.3.1 Toughening (tempering) and the heat soak test......Page 478
   37.3.2 Heat strengthening......Page 479
   37.4.2 Bending and tempering......Page 480
   37.5.2 Acid etching......Page 481
  37.6 Laminating......Page 482
  37.7 Insulating unit manufacture......Page 484
  37.8 Fire-resisting glasses......Page 485
  References......Page 486
   38.2.2 Strength of glass......Page 487
    38.2.4.1 Annealed/annealed......Page 490
  Reference......Page 491
   39.2.1 Deflection criteria......Page 493
   39.3.1 Strength of laminated glass......Page 494
   39.4.1 Design of insulating units......Page 495
  39.8 Glazing for security......Page 496
  References......Page 497
   40.1.2 Protection on site......Page 499
  40.3 Disposal and recycling......Page 500
  References......Page 501
  Example questions for Part VI Glass......Page 502
  Further reading for Part VI Glass......Page 503
Part VII: Timber......Page 505
  41.1 Structure at the macroscopic level......Page 509
  41.2 Structure at the microscopic level......Page 511
    41.3.1.1 Cellulose......Page 517
    41.3.1.2 Hemicelluloses and lignin......Page 520
    41.3.1.5 Acidity......Page 521
   41.3.2 The cell wall as a fibre composite......Page 522
   41.3.3 Cell wall layers......Page 523
  41.4 Variability in structure......Page 526
   41.5.2 Figure......Page 527
    41.5.2.1 Grain......Page 528
    41.5.2.4 Knots......Page 529
   41.5.3 Colour......Page 530
   41.6.1 Density......Page 531
   41.6.2 Specific gravity......Page 532
   41.7.1 Equilibrium moisture content......Page 534
   41.7.2 Determination of moisture content......Page 535
   41.7.3 The moisture content of green timber......Page 536
   41.7.5 Influence of structure......Page 537
   41.7.6 Fibre saturation point......Page 538
  41.8 Flow in timber......Page 539
    41.8.1.1 Flow of fluids......Page 541
    41.8.1.2 Flow paths in timber......Page 542
    41.8.1.3 Timber and the laws of flow......Page 545
   41.8.2 Moisture diffusion......Page 546
   41.8.3 Thermal conductivity......Page 547
  References......Page 548
    42.2.1.1 Anisotropy in shrinkage......Page 551
   42.2.2 Movement......Page 553
  42.3 Thermal movement......Page 555
  42.4 Deformation under load......Page 556
   42.4.1 Elastic deformation......Page 557
    42.4.1.2 Factors influencing the elastic modulus......Page 560
   42.4.2 Viscoelastic deformation......Page 566
    42.4.2.1 Creep......Page 567
  References......Page 579
   43.2.1 Test piece size and selection......Page 583
   43.3.1 Derived using small clear test pieces......Page 584
   43.3.2 Derived using structural-size test pieces......Page 586
  43.4 Variability in strength values......Page 587
  43.6 Factors affecting strength......Page 588
   43.6.1 Anisotropy and grain angle......Page 589
   43.6.3 Density......Page 590
   43.6.4 Ring width......Page 591
   43.6.5 Ratio of latewood to earlywood......Page 592
   43.6.8 Chemical composition......Page 593
   43.6.10 Moisture content......Page 594
   43.6.11 Temperature......Page 595
   43.6.12 Time......Page 596
    43.6.12.2 Duration of load......Page 597
    43.7.1.1 Tensile strength parallel to the grain......Page 599
    43.7.1.2 Compression strength parallel to the grain......Page 602
    43.7.1.4 Toughness......Page 604
    43.7.1.5 Fatigue......Page 605
   43.8.1 Visual grading......Page 607
   43.8.4 Structural design......Page 608
  References......Page 610
   44.2.1 Photochemical degradation......Page 613
   44.2.4 Mechanical degradation......Page 614
   44.3.1 Natural durability......Page 615
   44.3.2 Nature of fungal decay......Page 617
   44.3.3 Nature of insect attack......Page 618
  44.4 Performance of timber in fire......Page 619
   44.4.1 Methods of assessing reaction to fire of constructional materials......Page 621
    44.4.1.2 The use of national and CEN standards......Page 622
  References......Page 623
    45.2.1.1 Sawing and planing......Page 625
   45.2.2 Wood-based panels (board materials)......Page 627
    45.2.2.1 Plywood......Page 628
    45.2.2.2 Particleboard (chipboard)......Page 630
    45.2.2.4 Wet-process fibreboard......Page 631
    45.2.2.7 Comparative performance of the wood-based boards......Page 632
   45.2.3 Laminated timber......Page 633
   45.2.5 Mechanical pulping......Page 635
   45.2.6 Recycling of timber waste......Page 636
   45.3.1 Treatability......Page 637
    45.3.1.1 Preservatives and preservation......Page 638
    45.3.1.2 Flame retardants......Page 640
    45.3.1.3 Dimensional stabilisers and durability enhancers......Page 641
   45.3.2 Chemical pulping......Page 642
   45.3.3 Other chemical processes......Page 643
  45.5 Finishes......Page 644
   45.5.1 Flame-retardant coatings......Page 646
  References......Page 647
  Example questions for Part VII Timber......Page 649
  Further reading for Part VII Timber......Page 650
Part VIII: Masonry: Brickwork, blockwork and stonework......Page 653
  46.1 Basic terminology......Page 657
    46.2.1.3 Mortar and rendering sands......Page 659
   46.2.2 Clays......Page 660
   46.2.3 Lightweight aggregates......Page 661
    46.2.4.3 Lime and hydraulic lime......Page 662
   46.3.2 Latex additives......Page 663
  46.4 Mortar......Page 664
   46.4.1 Properties of freshly mixed (unset) mortar......Page 665
   46.4.2 Properties of hardened mortar......Page 666
    46.5.1.1 Soft mud process......Page 668
    46.5.1.3 Wirecut process......Page 669
    46.5.1.5 Drying and firing in Hoffman kilns......Page 670
    46.5.1.6 Drying and firing in tunnel kilns......Page 671
   46.5.2 Properties......Page 672
  46.7 Concrete and manufactured stone units......Page 675
    46.7.1.3 Curing......Page 676
    46.7.2.2 Manufactured stone masonry units......Page 677
  46.8 Aircrete (AAC)......Page 678
   46.8.2 Properties......Page 679
  46.10 Ancillary devices......Page 680
  References......Page 681
  47.1 Walls and other masonry forms......Page 683
  47.2 Bond patterns......Page 685
  47.3 Use of specials......Page 687
  47.6 Buildability, site efficiency and productivity......Page 689
  References......Page 690
  48.1 General considerations......Page 691
   48.2.1 Axial loads......Page 693
   48.2.2 Stability: Slender structures and eccentricity......Page 696
   48.2.3 Concentrated load......Page 697
  48.3 Shear loading......Page 698
  48.4 Flexure (bending)......Page 700
  48.5 Tension......Page 703
  48.6 Elastic modulus......Page 704
  48.7 Building (seismic) behaviour......Page 705
  48.8 Movement and creep......Page 706
  References......Page 707
  49.1 Thermal performance......Page 709
  49.2 Resistance to damp and rain penetration......Page 711
  49.3 Moisture vapour permeability......Page 712
  49.5 Fire resistance......Page 713
  References......Page 714
   50.1.1 Water and acid rain......Page 715
   50.1.3 Sulphate attack......Page 717
  50.2 Erosion......Page 718
   50.2.1 Freeze–thaw attack......Page 719
   50.2.3 Abrasion......Page 720
   50.4.1 Efflorescence......Page 721
   50.4.4 Biological staining......Page 722
   50.5.1 Principles......Page 723
   50.5.2 Replacement materials: Stone......Page 724
   50.5.4 Replacement materials: Mortars......Page 725
   50.5.7 Cleaning of masonry......Page 726
   50.6.1 Strengthening of structural elements......Page 727
   50.6.3 Improvement of the global building behaviour......Page 728
  References......Page 729
  Example questions for Part VIII Masonry: Brickwork, blockwork and stonework......Page 731
  Further reading for Part VIII Masonry: Brickwork, blockwork and stonework......Page 732
Part IX: Bituminous materials......Page 739
    51.2.1.1 Natural asphalts......Page 743
   51.2.3 Chemistry and molecular structure......Page 744
   51.2.4 Physical and rheological properties......Page 745
   51.3.3 Cutbacks......Page 746
   51.3.4 Emulsions......Page 747
   51.4.1 Properties......Page 749
  References......Page 751
  52.2 Empirical measurements of viscosity......Page 753
  52.3 Measurement of viscosity......Page 755
  52.4 Influence of temperature on viscosity......Page 756
  52.5 Resistance of bitumens to deformation......Page 758
  52.6 Determination of permanent deformation......Page 759
   52.7.3 Temperature......Page 760
  References......Page 761
  53.2 Modes of failure in a bituminous structure......Page 763
  53.3 Fatigue characteristics......Page 765
   53.3.1 Stress and strain conditions......Page 766
   53.3.2 The strain criteria......Page 767
   53.3.3 Effect of mixture variables......Page 768
  References......Page 769
   54.1.2 Loss of volatiles......Page 771
   54.1.4 Bitumen ageing tests......Page 772
  54.2 Permeability......Page 773
   54.2.2 Factors affecting permeability......Page 774
   54.3.1 The nature of the aggregate......Page 775
    54.3.3.1 Displacement......Page 776
    54.3.3.2 Detachment......Page 777
    54.3.3.3 Film rupture......Page 778
    54.3.3.6 Hydraulic scouring......Page 779
  References......Page 780
   55.1.2 Hot rolled asphalts......Page 781
   55.1.3 Porous asphalt......Page 782
   55.1.4 Stone mastic asphalt......Page 783
  55.2 Recipe and designed mixtures......Page 784
  55.3 Methods of production......Page 786
  References......Page 788
  56.1 In-plant asphalt recycling......Page 789
   56.1.1 Hot in-plant operations......Page 790
    56.2.1.2 Remix......Page 791
   56.2.2 Cold in situ processes......Page 792
  References......Page 793
  Example questions for Part IX Bituminous materials......Page 795
  Further reading for Part IX Bituminous materials......Page 796
Part X: Selection and sustainable use of construction materials......Page 799
  57.1 Ranges of properties......Page 801
  57.2 Specific stiffness and specific strength......Page 804
  Reference......Page 805
  58.1 Global considerations......Page 807
   58.2.1 Use of materials......Page 810
   58.2.2 Life-cycle assessment......Page 811
   58.2.3 The green hierarchy......Page 813
  58.3 Steel......Page 815
  58.4 Aggregates......Page 816
   58.5.1 Cement......Page 817
   58.5.2 Aggregates for concrete......Page 820
   58.5.3 Concrete......Page 821
  58.7 Masonry......Page 822
  58.9 Polymers and fibre composites......Page 823
  58.10 Timber......Page 824
  References......Page 825
  Further reading......Page 827
Index......Page 829