Conservation of Marine Birds

Front Cover
Conservation of Marine Birds
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Section  I: Threats
	Chapter 1 Ecology of marine birds
		Life history and adaptations
			What is a marine bird?
			Morphological and physiological adaptations
			Ecological importance
		Population biology
			Lifespan and age at first breeding
			Population variation
			Survival
			Reproductive success
		Breeding ecology
			Coloniality
			Nesting habitats
			Phenology
			Pair formation and incubation
			Chick rearing
		Foraging ecology
			Foraging strategies—Searching for and locating prey
			Feeding methods—Capturing prey
		Differences between temperate and tropical seabirds
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 2 Conservation status and overview of threats to seabirds
		Seabird status and trends
		Threats to seabirds
			Bycatch
			Overfishing
			Invasive alien species
			Changing climate
			Disease
			Pollution
			Habitat loss and development
			Hunting and harvesting
			Disturbance
			Loss of subsurface predators in tropics
			Guano harvesting
			Hybridization
			Offshore wind farms
			Fishing discards
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 3 Interactions between fisheries and seabirds: Prey modification, discards, and bycatch
		Introduction
			Associations, models, experiments, inference
			Costs and benefits
			Direct mortality
			Objectives
		Forage fisheries
		Fisheries for large pelagic and demersal fishes
		Discards, offal, and food quality
			Discard removal
		Bycatch
			Longline fisheries
			Gillnet fisheries
			Trawl fisheries
			Purse-seine fisheries
		Disturbance
		Aquaculture
		Projected trends, emerging threats, and environmental synergisms
		Knowledge gaps, future research
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 4 Invasive species threats to seabirds
		Introduction
		A short history of invasive species, islands, and why seabirds are threatened
			Why seabirds are at risk from invasive species: The timing, scope, and severity of threats
		Invasive mammals threaten seabird survival globally
			Invasive mammalian predators
			Invasive mammalian herbivores
		The impacts of non-mammalian invasive species on seabirds
			Invasive animals: Reptiles, birds, fish, and invertebrates
			Terrestrial invasive plants
			Parasites, diseases, and viruses
			Native problematic species
		Projected trends in invasive species introductions and emergent threats
			Climate change and invasive species
		Conclusions and future directions in addressing invasive species threats to seabirds
		References
	Chapter 5 Health and diseases
		Introduction
		Which infectious agents and biotoxins are most important?
		Case studies
			Highly pathogenic avian influenza in seabirds in southern Africa
			Avian pox in albatrosses in Hawaii
			Pasteurellosis in Arctic and Subantarctic seabirds
			Paralytic shellfish poisoning in seabirds at the Falkland/Malvinas Islands
		Projected trends and emerging threats
		Knowledge gaps
		Best practices for biosecurity at seabird colonies
			Special precautionary measures during disease outbreaks or unusual mortality events
		Conclusions
		Glossary
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 6 Pollution—Lights, plastics, oil, and contaminants
		Introduction: Scope and severity of threats
			Overview
			Plastics and contaminants
				Occurrence in marine ecosystems
				Physical impacts
					Ingestion
					Body condition and reproduction
					Entanglement
					Links between plastics and contaminants
			Oil pollution
				Occurrence in marine ecosystems
				Physical impacts
					Internal effects
					Body condition, stress, and reproduction
			Light pollution
				Fatal attraction to ALAN
				Factors affecting fallout
				Other impacts
					Colony attendance
					Diurnal activity extension to night hours
					Physiological impacts
			Pollution connections
		Species and regions most impacted
			Plastics
				Species
				Foraging ecology
				Life history stage
			Contaminants
				Species
				Foraging ecology
				Life history stage
			Oil pollution
				Species and regions
			Light pollution
				Species
				Regions
		Interactions with climate change
			Plastics
			Contaminants
			Oil pollution
			Light pollution
		Projected trends
			Plastics
			Contaminants
			Oil pollution
			Light pollution
		Emerging threats, knowledge gaps, and future research
			Plastics
				Monitoring programs using seabirds
			Contaminants
			Oil pollution
			Light pollution
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 7 Exploitation and disturbance
		Human history, seabird ecology, and exploitation
		Temporal aspects of exploitation
			Catastrophic events
			Chronic effects
		Types of exploitation
			Seabird excrement or guano
		Harvesting
			The technology of subsistence harvesting
			Egging
			Nestlings
			Feathers
			Other uses for seabirds
			Taking of seabirds for sport and cultural reasons
			Seabird populations that conflict with economic interests
		Disturbance and nonlethal exploitation
			Tourism and disturbance
		Seabirds as inspiration
		The impacts of windfarms on seabirds
		Discussion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further reading
	Chapter 8 Climate change: The ecological backdrop of seabird conservation
		Introduction
		Seabird responses to climate change
			Distribution
			Phenology
			Demographic
			Diet
		Climate change impacts seabirds through timing, distribution, and biomass of prey
		Effects of climate on seabird life history stages
		Species’ vulnerabilities to climate change
			Geographic variability in climate and ocean change
			Geographic variability in studies of seabird responses to climate change
			Geographic variability in effect of climate change on seabirds
			Life history traits
			Life history trade-offs
			Prey selection
			Migration
			Population-scale vulnerability
		Challenges in understanding and predicting the influence of climate change on seabirds
		References
Section  II: Solutions
	Chapter 9 Introduction and historical approaches to seabird conservation
		Introduction
		Finding nest sites of critically endangered species
		Protecting breeding colonies
		Providing and protecting individual nest sites
		Mitigating mortality induced by artificial lights and structures
		Mitigating the impacts of fisheries
		Encouraging seabirds to breed at new or restored sites
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 10 Legal and cooperative mechanisms for conserving marine birds
		Introduction
		Legal and other tools
		Land-based protections
			Designation of parks, refuges, and sanctuaries
			Regulation of exploitation
			Endangered species
		Protections at sea
			Marine protected areas and sanctuaries
			Fisheries management
				Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
				Conservation and management measures
				Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)
			Oil and plastic pollution
		Discussion and conclusions
		Disclaimer
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 11 Cultural aspects of seabird conservation
		Introduction
		Indigenous worldviews and perspectives of nature
		Biocultural relationships between Indigenous Peoples and seabirds
		Biocultural relationships and Indigenous resource management guide conservation and sustainable harvest of seabirds
		Local Community perspectives of seabirds
		Governance and comanagement
			Recommendations
		Social and environmental justice in seabird conservation
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 12 Managing harvests of seabirds and their eggs
		Introduction
			Harvest management in the current context of seabird conservation
			Harvest and population dynamics
		Regional patterns
			Diverse socio-ecological systems
			Diverse harvest management regimes
		Tools and effectiveness
			Harvest management strategies
			Data needs for harvest management
		Knowledge gaps and future research
			Disentangle threats, prioritize conservation efforts
		Conclusions
			Healthy seabird populations support sustainable harvests, people are intrinsic to solutions
			Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 13 Mitigating light attraction
		Introduction
			Attraction to artificial lights
		Tools and effectiveness
			Avoidance
			Duration
			Light spill
			Intensity
			Spectral composition
			Rescue campaigns
		Knowledge gaps and future research
			Biology of the species
			Threshold light levels and distance from light sources
			Fate of rescued birds
			Rehabilitation
			Light traits to minimize attraction
		References
	Chapter 14 Reducing collisions with structures
		Introduction
		Identifying factors that impact seabird collision risk
			Collision risk factor 1—The frequency of seabirds flying at powerlines
				Life history/morphology
				Environmental
				Powerline configuration
			Collision risk factor 2—The detectability of powerlines
				Life history/morphology
				Environmental
				Powerline configuration
			Collision risk factor 3—Collision avoidance
				Life history/morphology
				Environmental
				Powerline configuration
			Summary of collision risk and seabird groups with elevated risk
		Infrastructure with similar collision risk characteristics to powerlines
		Methods for reducing seabird collisions with powerlines and similar infrastructure
			Remove wires from seabird airspace
			Influence seabirds to alter their flight height to avoid powerline airspace
			Preconstruction planning
		Knowledge gaps and future research
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 15 Conservation of marine birds: Biosecurity, control, and eradication of invasive species threats
		Introduction
		Tools and planning considerations
			Biosecurity—Preventing the threat
			Eradication—Eliminating the threat
			Long-term control—Functionally suppressing the threat
			Fencing as a tool in support of invasive species solutions
		Effectiveness of IAS solutions and seabird recovery
			Operational effectiveness and biological outcomes of biosecurity
			Operational effectiveness and biological outcomes of eradication
			Operational effectiveness and biological outcomes of control
		Regional trends in invasive species management
			Case study: Biosecurity, control, and eradication to benefit seabirds on Mexican islands
		Emerging tools and trends in invasive species solutions for seabirds
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 16 Fisheries regulation and conserving prey bases
		Introduction
		Seabirds and prey resources
		Prey depletion—Fisheries effects on seabirds
			Case studies
				Shetland sandeel fishery
				NW North Sea sandeel fishery
				South Georgia krill fishery
				South African Anchovy and Sardine fisheries
				Wadden Sea shellfish fishery
		Regulation of forage fish and krill fisheries
		Regulation of fisheries for large predatory fish
		Discards and offal
		Discussion
		References
	Chapter 17 Bycatch reduction
		Introduction
		Determination of risk posed to seabirds from fisheries
		Best practice seabird bycatch mitigation
			The role of CCAMLR and ACAP in addressing seabird bycatch
			Criteria for best practice mitigation of seabird bycatch
			Accepted/emerging best practice seabird bycatch reduction by gear type
				Time/area closures
				Longline fisheries
				Trawl catcher-processors
				Gillnets
				Purse seine fisheries
		Research to implementation
			The challenges associated with implementation of best practice mitigation measures
			Fishery certification programs
			Quantifying seabird bycatch and ensuring compliance
				At-sea monitoring
				Port monitoring
				Sustaining awareness through education and support
		Case studies of fisheries successfully reducing seabird bycatch
			CCAMLR demersal longline fisheries
			Alaska demersal longline fisheries
			Namibia demersal longline and trawl fisheries
			Hawaii pelagic longline fisheries
			Falkland Islands' trawl fishery
		Measuring success
		Future directions
			Technological advancements
			Challenges presented by certain gear types
		Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 18 Protecting marine habitats: Spatial conservation measures for seabirds at sea
		Introduction
		Fundamentals of marine protection
			Families of conservation measures
			Why to protect and some guiding principles
			Conservation targets
		Perspectives on Indigenous conservation
		Protection measures
			A spectrum of conservation measures
			Tools in the toolbox
		What and where to protect
			Spatial conservation for seabirds at sea
			Spatial conservation for ecosystem function
			Priority sites
		How to protect: Approaches and strategies
			Who is involved?
			Spatial planning
			Bottom-up or top-down
		Costs and benefits of marine protections
		Implementation and effectiveness
		Research and policy priorities
		Summary and conclusion
		References
	Chapter 19 Restoration: Social attraction and translocation
		Introduction
		Identifying a seabird restoration project
		Selecting seabird restoration sites
		Selecting a restoration approach
		Social attraction methods
			Decoys and mirrors
			Audio attractants
			Olfactory attractants
		Translocation
			Selecting a source colony
			Transportation recommendations to reduce stress
			Carrying case designs
			Feeding translocated chicks
			Artificial nest structures
		Case studies
			Restoration of Atlantic Puffins to historic nesting sites in the Gulf of Maine, USA
			Restoration and assisted colonization of Procellariiform seabirds in Hawaii, USA
			Chatham Island Taiko ( Pterodroma magentae) translocation
			Social attraction and translocation of seabirds in Baja California and Guadalupe Island, Mexico
		A global Seabird Restoration Database
		Knowledge gaps and future work
		References
		Further reading
	Chapter 20 Conclusions and the future of seabird conservation
		References
Index
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