Connectivity Conservation (Conservation Biology)

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Series-title......Page 4
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
List of Contributors......Page 11
Acknowledgements......Page 17
1 Connectivity conservation: maintaining connections for nature......Page 19
WHAT IS CONNECTIVITY?......Page 20
RECENT HISTORY OF CONNECTIVITY RESEARCH......Page 23
Habitat fragmentation and the need for connectivity......Page 25
Benefits and challenges of connectivity conservation......Page 27
Moving beyond the corridors debate: the key questions......Page 30
VOLUME OVERVIEW......Page 31
CONCLUSION......Page 32
REFERENCES......Page 35
Part I Approaches to connectivity research......Page 39
Introduction: Connectivity research–what are the issues?......Page 41
IMPLICATIONS FOR CONSERVATION......Page 44
INTRODUCTION......Page 47
JUST WHAT IS LANDSCAPE CONNECTIVITY, ANYWAY?!! ISSUES AND CONCEPTS......Page 48
ASSESSING LANDSCAPE CONNECTIVITY......Page 49
Heterogeneity and asymmetrical landscape connectivity......Page 50
Non-linear effects of landscape connectivity are possible......Page 52
MISAPPLICATION OF CONNECTIVITY CONCEPTS ON THE LANDSCAPE......Page 53
Manage the matrix!......Page 54
Landscape connectivity is a necessary but not sufficient condition for species conservation......Page 56
Landscape connectivity is a dynamic concept......Page 57
REFERENCES......Page 58
INTRODUCTION......Page 62
The nearest neighbor (NN) connectivity measure......Page 64
The incidence function model (IFM) connectivity measure......Page 65
Comparing simple connectivity measures......Page 67
CONNECTIVITY IN METAPOPULATION DYNAMICS......Page 70
Movements of individuals......Page 71
Connectivity and colonizations......Page 73
Connectivity and modeling metapopulation dynamics......Page 77
The metapopulation capacity of a fragmented landscape......Page 78
ESTIMATION OF CONNECTIVITY AND EMPIRICAL DATA QUALITY......Page 80
DISCUSSION......Page 82
Prediction using connectivity measures......Page 84
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION......Page 85
REFERENCES......Page 86
GENETIC IMPACTS OF SMALL POPULATION SIZES AND FRAGMENTATION......Page 90
EFFECTS OF POPULATION STRUCTURE......Page 93
CASE STUDY 4.1 Inbreeding and extinction risk in butterfly metapopulations in Finland (Saccheri et al. 1998)......Page 94
CASE STUDY 4.2 Impact of fragmentation in island populations of rock wallabies in Australia......Page 95
Partially connected fragments......Page 100
CASE STUDY 4.3 Impact of habitat fragmentation on the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker population in southeastern USA......Page 101
How much gene flow is required to connect population fragments?......Page 102
Impacts of different population structures on reproductive fitness......Page 103
ASSESSING CONNECTIVITY AND MEASURING GENE FLOW......Page 104
Equilibrium between migration and inbreeding......Page 105
CASE STUDY 4.4 Computation of F statistics for the rare Pacific yew......Page 106
Dispersal and gene flow......Page 107
EFFECTS OF FRAGMENTATION AND REDUCED CONNECTIVITY IN SPECIES WITH DIVERSE BREEDING SYSTEMS......Page 109
CONCLUSIONS......Page 110
REFERENCES......Page 111
INTRODUCTION......Page 115
DEFINING HABITAT LINKAGES......Page 116
Units of flux......Page 117
Primary effects......Page 118
Dynamical features......Page 119
BOX 5.1 Differences in mediation of linkages between freshwater, marine, and terrestrial habitats......Page 121
Cell A: unidirectional movement of organisms, material, or energy, without feedback......Page 122
Cell B: unidirectional movement of organisms, material, or energy, with feedback......Page 124
Cell C: bidirectional movement of organisms, material, or energy, without feedback......Page 125
Cell D: bidirectional movement of organisms, material, or energy, with feedback......Page 126
Scale dependence of connectivity......Page 128
Perspective dependence of connectivity......Page 129
Ramifying and multiple effects......Page 130
FACTORS PROMOTING AND LIMITING HABITAT LINKAGES......Page 131
CONSIDERATIONS FOR ECOLOGY......Page 134
Anthropogenic alterations......Page 136
Conservation implications......Page 138
CONCLUSION......Page 139
REFERENCES......Page 141
INTRODUCTION......Page 148
GRAY WOLVES......Page 150
STUDY AREA......Page 153
Landscape data......Page 154
Prey resource availability......Page 155
Statistical analyses......Page 156
RESULTS......Page 157
DISCUSSION......Page 159
Size matters......Page 160
Isolation......Page 161
Island shape......Page 162
Food resources......Page 163
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 166
REFERENCES......Page 167
INTRODUCTION......Page 175
MIGRATORY CONNECTIVITY......Page 176
WHY STUDY MIGRATORY CONNECTIVITY?......Page 177
MIGRATORY CONNECTIVITY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS......Page 180
Model output......Page 184
TOOLS FOR MEASURING MIGRATORY CONNECTIVITY......Page 188
Statistical approaches for estimating migratory connectivity......Page 191
Illustration......Page 193
Illustration......Page 194
REFERENCES......Page 195
INTRODUCTION......Page 202
MEASURING DISPERSAL DISTANCE AND IDENTIFYING SOURCES......Page 207
Timing......Page 210
Swimming behavior......Page 212
Post-larval mobility......Page 213
Ecological considerations......Page 214
Fisheries management......Page 216
Marine reserves......Page 217
Prevention and control of invasive species......Page 220
Biodiversity and connectivity......Page 221
CONCLUSION......Page 222
REFERENCES......Page 223
INTRODUCTION......Page 231
CONNECTIVITY IN THE OCEAN......Page 232
CONNECTIVITY RESEARCH AND WIDE-RANGING MARINE ANIMALS......Page 233
CONNECTIVITY RESEARCH: A CASE STUDY......Page 235
A primer on sea turtle biology......Page 236
Surface foraging: open ocean......Page 237
Reproductive migration: oceanic and/or neritic habitats......Page 239
Connectivity, sea turtles, and conservation......Page 240
Dynamic fragmentation and connectivity......Page 242
Conservation status of wide-ranging marine species......Page 243
Coastal and nearshore habitat conservation......Page 244
CONCLUSION......Page 245
REFERENCES......Page 246
INTRODUCTION......Page 251
BRIEF HISTORY OF CONNECTIVITY RESEARCH IN RIVER ECOSYSTEMS......Page 252
HYDROLOGIC CONNECTIVITY AND ITS IMPORTANCE TO THE FIELD OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY......Page 254
"PROTECTED" AREA CASE STUDY: THE CARIBBEAN NATIONAL FOREST, PUERTO RICO, AND ITS VULNERABILITY TO DOWNSTREAM…......Page 258
Genetic and species-level changes......Page 259
Population- and community-level changes......Page 261
Ecosystem- and landscape-level changes......Page 262
EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: HYDROLOGIC CONNECTIVITY AND THE TRANSPORT OF CONTAMINANTS IN THE LANDSCAPE......Page 264
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 267
REFERENCES......Page 268
INTRODUCTION......Page 273
POLLINATORS IN AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES......Page 275
Case 1: Coffee in Costa Rica......Page 276
Study system and design......Page 277
Pollinator activity and pollination......Page 279
Stability of pollination service over time......Page 281
Case 2: Watermelon in California......Page 282
Study system and sites......Page 283
Watermelon pollination......Page 284
Use of natural habitats by watermelon pollinators......Page 286
Case 3: Kiwifruit in New Zealand......Page 287
Study system and design......Page 288
Fruit set and pollen limitation......Page 289
Almond: a temporal disconnect......Page 291
Oil palm: persistence in the matrix?......Page 292
DISCUSSION......Page 293
Pollinator activity......Page 294
Pollination services......Page 295
A community-mediated service......Page 297
Future directions......Page 298
CONCLUSION......Page 300
REFERENCES......Page 301
Part II Assessing connectivity......Page 309
Introduction: Evaluating and quantifying the conservation dividends of connectivity......Page 311
INTRODUCTION......Page 315
Category 1: Patch occupancy data and nearest-neighbor distance......Page 317
Category 2: Spatially explicit habitat data......Page 318
Category 3: Point or grid-based occurrence data......Page 320
Category 4: Spatially explicit habitat data with dispersal data......Page 322
Category 5: Spatially explicit patch occupancy, patch, and dispersal data......Page 324
Category 6: Individual movement data......Page 326
DISCUSSION......Page 328
REFERENCES......Page 332
INTRODUCTION......Page 336
SALMONID ECOLOGY AND CONNECTIVITY......Page 337
MICROSATELLITE MARKERS AND INFERENCES ABOUT CONNECTIVITY......Page 340
ASSESSING CONNECTIVITY WITH MICROSATELLITES: CASE STUDIES......Page 344
Influences of stream network structure......Page 345
Influences of natural and human-constructed movement barriers......Page 346
LIFE HISTORY AND CONNECTIVITY......Page 349
HISTORICAL FACTORS AND CONNECTIVITY......Page 350
METAPOPULATION DYNAMICS AND CONNECTIVITY......Page 351
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 352
REFERENCES......Page 353
Animal movement......Page 361
Background......Page 362
GENERAL APPROACH......Page 364
Animal movement data......Page 365
Statistical models of animal movement......Page 367
Individual-based movement simulations......Page 370
Evaluating functional connectivity......Page 372
Background......Page 374
Alternative landscapes......Page 375
Data......Page 377
Simulation results......Page 379
Objectives for connectivity conservation......Page 380
Objective 3: Connectivity for important coastal core areas......Page 381
Objective 4: Connectivity for nearby small cores......Page 382
CONCLUSION......Page 383
REFERENCES......Page 385
INTRODUCTION......Page 387
WHY USE SPATIALLY EXPLICIT POPULATION MODELS TO EVALUATE CONNECTIVITY?......Page 389
CONNECTIVITY IN CONTEXT: CLASSIFYING LANDSCAPES BASED ON PATCH/MATRIX CONTRAST......Page 392
CORRIDOR PLANNING IN MEDIUM-CONTRAST LANDSCAPES: AN EXAMPLE......Page 395
CORRIDOR PLANNING AND PATTERNS OF DISPERSAL......Page 398
COMPARING SPATIALLY EXPLICIT POPULATION MODEL RESULTS TO THOSE FROM SIMPLER LANDSCAPE INDICES AND MODELS......Page 401
CONCLUSION......Page 403
REFERENCES......Page 404
INTRODUCTION......Page 408
The literature......Page 410
When to expect positive corridor effects......Page 414
Designing corridor studies in variable environments......Page 416
FUTURE DIRECTIONS LINKING THEORY, MODEL SYSTEMS, AND MANAGEMENT......Page 417
Corridors as conduits for rare events......Page 418
Thinking big: large-scale manipulations......Page 420
Linkage across life-history and trophic levels......Page 423
Model-directed experimental research......Page 425
CONCLUSION......Page 428
REFERENCES......Page 429
INTRODUCTION......Page 434
COMPUTING EFFECTIVE DISTANCE......Page 437
Outputs from cost-weighted methods......Page 438
From the least-cost path to multiple pathways......Page 443
GRAPH THEORY......Page 446
Landscape networks......Page 447
An example landscape network......Page 450
CONCLUSION......Page 453
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 455
REFERENCES......Page 456
Part III Challenges and implementation of connectivity conservation......Page 463
Introduction: Don't fence me in......Page 465
REFERENCES......Page 467
INTRODUCTION......Page 469
The proliferation of invasion vectors......Page 471
Anthropogenic influences on invasion rates......Page 477
Vector activity and the population dynamics of established invaders......Page 481
Ecosystem quality and invasion success......Page 483
Fragmentation is in the eye of the beholder......Page 484
IMPLICATIONS OF HYPERCONNECTIVITY FOR CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT......Page 485
REFERENCES......Page 488
INTRODUCTION......Page 497
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE: DISEASE AND HABITAT FRAGMENTATION......Page 499
PHOCINE DISTEMPER AND SEALS......Page 502
DOES CONNECTIVITY INCREASE THE RISK OF PATHOGEN-INDUCED EXTINCTION? THEORY......Page 508
HABITAT FRAGMENTATION AND GENETIC RESISTENCE TO PATHOGENS......Page 512
CONCLUSIONS......Page 515
REFERENCES......Page 517
INTRODUCTION......Page 520
Habitat change......Page 522
Connectivity......Page 523
Function and performance of wildlife crossings......Page 525
Measuring wildlife crossing performance and conservation value......Page 526
WILDLIFE CROSSING PLACEMENT......Page 529
Methods......Page 532
Results and discussion......Page 533
Regional-scale movement models......Page 534
Methods......Page 535
Results and discussion......Page 536
Local-scale movement models......Page 539
Methods......Page 540
Expert-based models......Page 542
Multi-scale, regional, and local models......Page 543
CONCLUSION......Page 544
REFERENCES......Page 546
INTRODUCTION......Page 554
A TYPICAL CONNECTIVITY CONUNDRUM......Page 555
FRAMING THE TRADE-OFFS......Page 558
IMPLIMENTATION IN PRACTICE: THE TENAJA CORRIDOR......Page 561
INTEGRATING FEASIBILITY AND BIOLOGY IN THE SANTA CLARA RIVER VALLY......Page 564
PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING NETWORKS: NATURAL COMMUNITIES CONSERVATION PLANNING......Page 567
CONNECTIVITY CONSERVATION IN PRACTICE......Page 569
REFERENCES......Page 571
INTRODUCTION......Page 573
Engaging partners......Page 576
Workshops......Page 577
STEP 2: SELECT CORE AREAS AND PRIORITIZE LINKAGES......Page 578
STEP 3: SELECT FOCAL SPECIES FOR EACH LINKAGE......Page 581
A: Determine whether least-cost corridor analysis is appropriate to identify lands that best facilitate movement of each focal species, or their genes, between the two core areas......Page 583
B: For appropriate focal species, conduct least-cost corridor analysis (LCCA)......Page 584
C:Conduct habitat suitability analysis......Page 588
D: Impose minimum widths on each ULCC......Page 589
The Linkage Design......Page 590
STEP 5: SPECIFY RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES AND MANAGEMENT NEEDS......Page 591
STEP 6: PARCEL-LEVEL MAPS AND IMPLEMENTATION......Page 593
STEP 7: DESIGN AND IMPLEMENT A MONITORING PROGRAM......Page 596
CONCLUSION......Page 597
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 601
REFERENCES......Page 602
INTRODUCTION......Page 605
WAYS OF IDENTIFYING AND DESIGNING BROAD-SCALE CORRIDORS......Page 607
Seat-of-the-pants approaches......Page 608
Only remaining routes......Page 609
Routes incorporating sites of conservation interest......Page 610
Routes based on expert knowledge of focal species......Page 611
Combinations of expert-based approaches......Page 612
Routes based on observations of animal presence, movements, or signs......Page 615
Routes based on radiotelemetry and other marking of animals......Page 619
Routes based on least-cost path analysis......Page 620
Routes based on spatially explicit population modeling......Page 623
CONNECTIVITY BY MEANS OTHER THAN CORRIDORS......Page 624
CONCLUSIONS......Page 626
REFERENCES......Page 628
INTRODUCTION......Page 638
Expanding the conservation approach......Page 639
Conservation realities mandate a broader focus......Page 641
DEFINING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION CORRIDORS......Page 642
DESIGNING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION CORRIDORS......Page 644
Elements of a biodiversity conservation corridor......Page 645
Protected area system......Page 646
Connectivity network......Page 647
Compatible land uses......Page 648
KEY CONSIDERATIONS IN CORRIDOR DESIGN......Page 649
Delineating corridor boundaries......Page 650
Addressing socio-economic factors......Page 652
Governance......Page 654
Property rights and community values......Page 655
Alliances......Page 656
Multi-stakeholder management institutions and committees......Page 657
Zoning......Page 658
Role of incentives and enforcement......Page 659
Spatial modeling......Page 660
REVEALING AND USING THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF CONSERVATION......Page 661
REFERENCES......Page 663
INTRODUCTION......Page 667
CONNECTIVITY FOR BIODIVERSITY PROTECTON......Page 668
1. Critical species interactions......Page 670
2. Long-distance biological movement......Page 671
3. Disturbance at local and regional scales......Page 672
4. Global climate change......Page 673
6. Coastal zone fluxes......Page 674
7. Spatially dependent evolutionary processes......Page 675
CROSS-CUTTING CONNECTIVITY ISSUES IN AUSTRALIAN CONSERVATION......Page 676
Scale and context......Page 678
Conservation phases......Page 679
Core area enhancement......Page 680
The matrix......Page 681
Spatial and temporal analyses......Page 682
Anticipating change......Page 683
CONCLUSIONS......Page 684
REFERENCES......Page 686
26 The future of connectivity conservation......Page 694
THE DISTINCT ROLE OF CONNECTIVITY IN CONSERVATION STRATEGY......Page 698
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE......Page 700
1. Beyond species: connectivity of communities, ecological processes, and ecological flows......Page 701
2. Integration of biological and socio-political issues in implementing connectivity......Page 704
3. Learning from experience......Page 706
4. Integrating connectivity into strategic planning for conservation......Page 707
REFERENCES......Page 709
Index......Page 713