Congenital Anomalies of Coronary Arteries

Acknowledgments
Contents
Part I: From Embryology to Diseases
	1: The Development of the Coronary Arteries
		Introduction
		Angiogenesis Versus Vasculogenesis
		Development of the Human Heart
		Evidence from Murine Development
		Comment
		References
	2: Congenital Anomalies of Coronary Arteries: Anatomy, Embryology and Risk of Sudden Death
		Anatomy of Coronary Arteries with Historical Notes
		Embryology of Coronary Arteries
		Coronary Artery Anomalies
		Coronary Artery Anomalies and Sudden Cardiac Death
		Causal Relationship Between Coronary Artery Anomalies and SCD
		References
	3: Normal Coronary Flow Physiology
		Introduction
		Physiology of Myocardial Blood Flow
		Coronary Flow Assessments
		Coronary Artery Anomalies: Effect on Coronary Flow
		References
	4: Myocardial Bridge(s)
		Introduction
		Anatomy
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnosis
			Morphological Assessment
			Functional Assessment
		Treatment
			Medical Therapy
			Percutaneous Coronary Intervention
			Surgery
		References
	5: Isolated Coronary Artery Fistulas
		Introduction
		Epidemiology
		Anatomy
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnosis
		Management of Coronary Artery Fistula
		Surgical Treatment
		Transcatheter Closure
		Prognosis
		References
	6: Coronary Artery Abnormalities Associated to Congenital or Non-congenital Heart Disease
		Coronary Artery Abnormalities Associated to Congenital Heart Disease
		Pulmonary Atresia with Intact Ventricular Septum
		Tetralogy of Fallot
		Transposition of the Great Arteries
		Other Types of Congenital Heart Defects Associated with Abnormal Coronary Artery Anatomy
		Inflammatory Diseases of the Coronary System
		References
	7: Anomalous Origin of the Coronary Arteries from the Pulmonary Artery: ALCAPA and ARCAPA
		Introduction
		Epidemiology
		Anatomy
		Clinical Presentation/Diagnosis
		Surgical Indications
		Surgical Technique
		Complications
		Follow-up
		References
	8: Coronary Artery Anomalies: An Updated Discussion on Nomenclature, Pathophysiology, and Screening
		Introduction
		CAA Nomenclature
		CAA Screening
		Evaluating CAA Severity
			L-ACAOS-IM Pathophysiology
			L-ACAOS-IS Pathophysiology
			Comments on Pathophysiological Differences Between L-ACAOS-IM and L-ACAOS-IS Studied by Pressure Wire
		References
Part II: Diagnosis and Risk Stratification
	9: Role of Patient History and Non-invasive Tests in the Workflow of Patients
		Anomalous Origin of a Coronary Artery from the Pulmonary Artery
			Anatomy
			Pathophysiology
			Clinical Presentation
			Diagnostic Imaging
		Anomalous Aortic Origin of the Coronary Artery
			Anatomy
			Pathophysiology
			Clinical Presentation
			Diagnostic Imaging
			Provocative Testing
		Coronary Artery Fistula
			Anatomy
			Pathophysiology
			Clinical Presentation
			Diagnostic Imaging
		Congenital Ostial Atresia of the Left Main Coronary Artery
			Pathophysiology
			Clinical Presentation
			Diagnostic Testing
		References
	10: Advanced Imaging in Congenital Abnormalities of Coronary Arteries in Children
		Introduction
		Echocardiography
			2D Transthoracic Echocardiography
			Prenatal 2D Transabdominal Echocardiography
			3D Transthoracic and Transoesophageal Echocardiography (3DE)
			Transoesophageal Echocardiography
			Epicardial Echocardiography
			Intravascular Ultrasound
			Stress Echocardiography
		Cross-sectional Imaging
			Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Computed Tomographic Imaging
			Functional Imaging by Cross-sectional Imaging
		Modelling and Simulations in AAOCA
		References
	11: Role of Invasive and Provocative Tests
		Introduction
		Coronary Artery Anomalies
			Absent Left Trunk
		Anomalous Origin of the Right Coronary Artery
			Location A
			Locations B and C
			Location D
			Location E
		Anomalous LCx from the Right Cusp
		Posterior Origin of the Left Main from the Left Cusp or Noncoronary Cusp
		Anomalous Left Main Coronary Artery from the Right Cusp
		Anomalous Coronary Arteries Originating from the Opposite Sinus of Valsalva (ACAOS)
			Double Ischemia Mechanism
			Role of Invasive Ultrasound Imaging and Fractional Flow Reserve
		References
	12: Pediatric Patients: Role of Invasive and Provocative Tests
		Introduction
		Exercise Stress Test (EST)
		Stress Echocardiography
		Advanced Imaging Upon Provocative Stress
			Nuclear Perfusion Imaging (NPI)
			Stress Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging (sCMR)
		Cardiac Catheterization
			Invasive Angiography
			Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR)
			Instantaneous Wave-Free Ratio (iFR)
			Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS)
		Conclusions
		References
	13: AAOCA in Young Athlete: How to Detect, What to Do, When to Allow Coming Back to Competitive Sport?
		Introduction
		How To Detect?
		When to Allow Coming Back to Sport After SUGERY
		References
	14: Sudden Death: Differential Diagnosis and AOCA
		Introduction
		AOCA and SCD
		Mechanisms of SCD in AOCA
		Implications for Cardiac Screening
		Conclusions
		References
	15: Congenital Coronary Artery Anomalies: Differential Diagnosis of Ventricular Arrhythmias in Young Athletes
		Ventricular Arrhythmias in Young Athletes
			Premature Ventricular Complexes
			Nonsustained Ventricular Tachycardia
			Sustained Ventricular Tachycardia
			Differential Diagnosis
				Congenital Coronary Artery Anomalies and Sudden Cardiac Death
		References
Part III: Modelling and Treatment(s)
	16: How Computational Model May Help in Mechanism Understanding?
		Introduction
		Computational Modeling of Coronary Arteries
			Generation of Patient-Specific Coronary Geometries
			Computational Mesh
			Material Properties
			Boundary Conditions
			Computational Simulation
			Postprocessing of Results
		Applicative Examples
			Anomalous Aortic Origin of the Coronary Artery (AAOCA)
			Coronary Arterial Fistula (CAF)
			Myocardial Bridging (MB)
		Limitations, Conclusions, and Further Developments
		Bibliography
	17: Computational Modeling for Decision Making
		Introduction
		Computational Fluid Dynamics
			Specific Definition for Coronary Vessels
			CFD Analysis: Workflow
			CFD Analysis: Quantities of Interest
		Practical Modeling Process for Congenital Artery Anomalies
			Virtual Model Segmentation
			Model Reconstruction
			Stent Geometry Reconstruction
		Applications of CFD Modeling for Decision Making: Data from Current Literature
			Myocardial Bridge
			Anomalous Coronary Origin Form the Opposite Sinus (ACAOS)
		Three-Dimensional Modeling and Printing
			3D Printing Steps
			Usefulness of the 3D Printing Models
		Future Developments
		References
	18: Anomalous Aortic Origin of Coronary Arteries Data from the Registries
		Introduction
		Gaps in Evidence
		Why a Registry for AAOCA
		Coronary Anomalies Program
		The Northern American Experience
		The European Experience
		Conclusions
		References
	19: Surgical Techniques for AAOCA
		Introduction
		Surgical Techniques for AAOCA
			Patient Preparation
				Unroofing of Intramural Segment
				Neo-Ostium Creation or Partial Unroofing
				Ostioplasty or “Anatomical Repair”
				Coronary Translocation and Reimplantation (TAR)
				Transconal Repair or Septal Relief of Subpulmonary AAOLCA
				Pulmonary artery Translocation
				Coronary artery Bypass Grafting
		Conclusions
		Bibliography
	20: Impact and Management of Anomalous Aortic Origin of Coronary Arteries in Adult Patients Undergoing Cardiac Surgery for Acquired Heart Disease
		Outline of Epidemiology and Diagnostic Assessment Tools for Anomalous Aortic Origin of Coronary Arteries in the Adult Population
		AAOCA and Adult Acquired Heart Disease
		Aortic Valve Surgery and AAOCA
			Retroaortic Course of an Anomalous Coronary Artery
				Isolated Aortic Valve Replacement
				Aortic Valve Replacement and Atrioventricular Valve Surgery
				Aortic Valve Replacement and Aortic Root Enlargement
			Inter-Arterial Course of an Abnormal Coronary Artery
			Abnormal Coronary Artery Originating above the Sinotubular Junction
		Aortic Root Surgery and AAOCA
		Mitral Valve Surgery and AAOCA
		Conclusions
		References
	21: Pre- and Postoperative Care
		Introduction
		Anesthesia
			Preoperative Consideration
			Premedication
			Sedation and Anesthesia
		Monitoring in ICU
			Electrocardiogram
			Blood Pressure
			Pulse Oximetry
			Capnometry
			Temperature Monitoring
			ScvO2 (Continuous Mixed Venous Oxygen Saturation) Monitoring
			Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) Monitoring
			Pulmonary Artery Pressure Monitoring
			Cardiac Output (CO) Monitoring
		Postoperative Management
			Ventilation Strategies
			Fluid Management
			Hemodynamic Management
			Inotrope and Vasopressor Support
			Intra-Aortic Balloon Counterpulsation
			Venoarterial ECMO
			Management of Bleeding and Transfusion Strategies
			Postoperative Outcome
		References
	22: Postoperative Complications and Outcomes After AAOCA Repair
		Introduction
		Anatomy
		Balancing the Risk of Surgery with the Risk of Complications
		Postoperative Complications
			Surgery-Specific Complications
			General Complications and Surgical Outcomes
		Problems Understanding Outcomes and Guidelines
		Conclusions
		References