Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry III

Cover
Half Title
Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry III. Volume 7: Inorganic Electrochemistry
Copyright
Contents of Volume 7
Editor Biographies
Volume Editors
Contributors to Volume 7
Preface
	Vol. 1: Synthesis, Structure, and Bonding in Inorganic Molecular Systems
	Vol. 2: Bioinorganic Chemistry and Homogeneous Biomimetic Inorganic Catalysis
	Vol. 3: Theory and Bonding of Inorganic Non-molecular Systems
	Vol. 4: Solid State Inorganic Chemistry
	Vol. 5: Inorganic Materials Chemistry
	Vol. 6: Heterogeneous Inorganic Catalysis
	Vol. 7: Inorganic Electrochemistry
	Vol. 8: Inorganic Photochemistry
	Vol. 9: NMR of Inorganic Nuclei
	Vol. 10: X-ray, Neutron and Electron Scattering Methods in Inorganic Chemistry
7.01. Introduction: Inorganic electrochemistry
	Abstract
	References
7.02. Status of Li(Na)-based anionic redox materials for better batteries
	Content
	Abstract
	7.02.1 Introduction
	7.02.2 The journey of anionic redox chemistry
		7.02.2.1 The birth of insertion chemistry based on dichalcogenides
		7.02.2.2 Anion–cation redox competition: Ligand hole chemistry and anion polymerization
		7.02.2.3 Oxygen redox activity in LiCoO2
		7.02.2.4 Li2MnO3-based compounds
		7.02.2.5 Model Li-rich or Na systems
		7.02.2.6 Theoretical progresses
		7.02.2.7 Practical issues: Sluggish kinetics, voltage hysteresis, and voltage fade
		7.02.2.8 Sulfides: There and back again
	7.02.3 Fundamentals behind anionic redox
		7.02.3.1 Band structure descriptions
		7.02.3.2 Anionic redox activity from O 2p “NB states” or “lone-pair states\"
		7.02.3.3 Charge-transfer (Δ) vs. Mott–Hubbard (U) classification
		7.02.3.4 Reductive coupling mechanism
		7.02.3.5 Anionic activity from O (2p)-M(nd) π-type interaction
		7.02.3.6 The nature of oxidized O2-: Electron holes, O-O dimers, trapper O2, molecules, and oxygen release
	7.02.4 Anionic redox opening a new rich materials chemistry
		7.02.4.1 Increasing the Li/M and O/M ratio in layered rock-salt compound
		7.02.4.2 Playing with the alkaline ion: From Li to Na
		7.02.4.3 Ligand manipulation: From oxides to sulfides/selenides
		7.02.4.4 Cation disorder, superstructure, and structural dimensionality
	7.02.5 Practical issues and their fundamental understandings
		7.02.5.1 Chemical and electrochemical irreversibility
		7.02.5.2 Voltage fade
		7.02.5.3 Voltage hysteresis
	7.02.6 Conclusions and outlook
	Acknowledgment
	References
7.03. Electrode materials for reversible sodium ions de/intercalation
	Content
	Abstract
	7.03.1 Introduction
	7.03.2 Positive electrode materials
		7.03.2.1 Layered oxides of transition metals
		7.03.2.2 Oxoanion-based compounds
			7.03.2.2.1 NaMPO4: Maricite and triphylite
			7.03.2.2.2 NASICON-structured electrode materials
			7.03.2.2.3 Alluaudites
			7.03.2.2.4 Pyrophosphates
			7.03.2.2.5 Mixed phosphates
		7.03.2.3 Mixed-anion positive electrode materials
			7.03.2.3.1 Na3V2(PO4)2(O,F)3
			7.03.2.3.2 Na2MPO4F (M = Mn, Fe, Co)
			7.03.2.3.3 AVPO4F (A – alkali metal): Tavorite and KTiOPO4 structure types
		7.03.2.4 Compounds with other oxoanions and mixed anion groups: Silicates, carbonate-phosphates, Prussian Blue analogs
	7.03.3 Negative electrode materials
		7.03.3.1 Carbon-based negative electrode materials
			7.03.3.1.1 Approaches for describing mechanisms of sodium ion storage
		7.03.3.2 Titanium-based materials
		7.03.3.3 Alloys
			7.03.3.3.1 Group 14
				7.03.3.3.1.1 Silicon-based electrode materials
				7.03.3.3.1.2 Sn- and Pb-based electrode materials
			7.03.3.3.2 Group 15
	7.03.4 Summary and outlook
	Acknowledgment
	References
7.04. Electrode materials for K-ion batteries
	Content
	Abstract
	7.04.1 Introduction to K-ion battery
	7.04.2 Positive electrode materials
		7.04.2.1 Layered oxides as positive electrode materials
			7.04.2.1.1 Classification of layered structures
			7.04.2.1.2 Stable structure types of layered AxMO2
			7.04.2.1.3 Single transition metal oxides
			7.04.2.1.4 P2- and P3-type binary and ternary transition-metal systems
		7.04.2.2 Prussian blue analogues
			7.04.2.2.1 Prussian blue analogues as electrode materials
			7.04.2.2.2 Li, Na, and K insertion into Prussian blue analogues
			7.04.2.2.3 Prussian blue analogues for K-ion batteries
			7.04.2.2.4 Structural evolution during Kþ insertion
			7.04.2.2.5 Particle size and anion vacancy effect on the electrochemical performance
		7.04.2.3 Polyanionic compounds as positive electrode materials
			7.04.2.3.1 KTiOPO4-type structure materials
			7.04.2.3.2 KxMP2O7 (M = Fe, Mn, and V)
			7.04.2.3.3 K3V2(PO4)3 and K3V2(PO4)2F3
	7.04.3 Negative electrode materials
		7.04.3.1 Carbon materials
			7.04.3.1.1 K intercalation into graphite
			7.04.3.1.2 Electrochemical properties of graphite
			7.04.3.1.3 Hard and soft carbon
		7.04.3.2 K Alloys and other potassiatable compounds
			7.04.3.2.1 Alkali metal alloy materials and compounds for Li-, Na-, and K-ion batteries
			7.04.3.2.2 Group 14 elements and compounds
			7.04.3.2.3 Group 15 elements and compounds
		7.04.3.3 Transition metal oxides as negative electrode materials
			7.04.3.3.1 Ti, Mo, and Nb oxides
			7.04.3.3.2 Transition metal oxides based on conversion reaction
		7.04.3.4 Transition metal chalcogenides
			7.04.3.4.1 3d transition metal dichalcogenides (TiS2 and VS2)
			7.04.3.4.2 4d and 5d transition metal dichalcogenides (MoS2, MoSe2, and WS2)
			7.04.3.4.3 Metal sulfides based on conversion or conversion-alloying reactions
	7.04.4 Summary and perspective
	References
7.05. Charge transfer through interfaces in metal-ion intercalation systems
	Content
	Abstract
	7.05.1 Introduction
	7.05.2 Interphases and electron transfer in metal-ion batteries
	7.05.3 Charge transfer kinetics in ion intercalation processes
		7.05.3.1 Heterogeneous charge transfer mechanism
		7.05.3.2 Heterogeneous charge transfer kinetics
		7.05.3.3 Phenomenological description of ion intercalation kinetics
	7.05.4 Experimental studies of charge transfer kinetics
		7.05.4.1 Electrochemical signatures of rate-limiting steps
		7.05.4.2 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of LIBs
		7.05.4.3 Apparent activation energies for interfacial charge transfer
	7.05.5 Modeling charge transfer in metal-ion batteries
		7.05.5.1 Modeling methods
		7.05.5.2 Construction of slabs with interfaces
			7.05.5.2.1 Stability of interface
			7.05.5.2.2 Solid-solid interfaces
			7.05.5.2.3 Solid-liquid interfaces
		7.05.5.3 Solid/solid interfaces
			7.05.5.3.1 Structure and energetics of solid/solid interfaces on the anode
			7.05.5.3.2 Structure and energetics of solid/solid interfaces on the cathode
		7.05.5.4 Metal-ion diffusion inside inorganic SEI phases
		7.05.5.5 Charge transfer across solid/solid interfaces
			7.05.5.5.1 Li+ transfer across Li/iSEI interfaces
			7.05.5.5.2 Li+ transfer across graphite/iSEI interfaces
			7.05.5.5.3 Li+ transfer across electrode/iSEI and iSEI/iSEI interfaces
		7.05.5.6 ET during Li+ electrodeposition
		7.05.5.7 Modeling of liquid solutions
		7.05.5.8 First stages of liquid electrolyte decomposition
		7.05.5.9 Structure and charge transfer at the anode/liquid electrolyte interfaces
			7.05.5.9.1 Li+ transfer through the electrolyte/oSEI interface
			7.05.5.9.2 Li+ transfer through the oSEI/iSEI interface
			7.05.5.9.3 Li+ transfer through the anode/electrolyte interface
		7.05.5.10 Structure and charge transfer at cathode/liquid electrolyte interface
	7.05.6 Concluding remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
7.06. Transition metal hexacyanoferrates as catalysts for (bio)sensors
	Content
	Abstract
	7.06.1 Introduction
	7.06.2 Structure and electroactivity
	7.06.3 Synthesis
	7.06.4 Transition metal hexacyanoferrates as electrocatalysts of hydrogen peroxide reduction
	7.06.5 Prussian Blue based (bio)sensors
	7.06.6 Prussian Blue based nanozymes and their applications
	7.06.7 Conclusion
	References
7.07. Conventional and less conventional solution-based synthesis of battery materials: Cathodes, anodes and electrolytes
	Content
	Abstract
	7.07.1 Introduction
	7.07.2 Synthesis routes for inorganic materials
		7.07.2.1 Different applications require different synthesis routes
		7.07.2.2 Aqueous sol(ution)-gel synthesis
		7.07.2.3 (Co)precipitation
			7.07.2.3.1 Precipitation
			7.07.2.3.2 Co-precipitation
		7.07.2.4 Hydrothermal and solvothermal synthesis routes
		7.07.2.5 Combustion synthesis
	7.07.3 Synthesis of battery materials
		7.07.3.1 LiMn2O4 (LMO) cathode material
		7.07.3.2 Li2MnO3 (Li-rich LMO) cathode material
		7.07.3.3 LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 (LNMO) cathode material
		7.07.3.4 LiNi-x-yMnxCoyO2 (NMC or NCM) cathode materials
		7.07.3.5 Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) anode material
		7.07.3.6 Sulfide solid-state electrolytes
			7.07.3.6.1 Binary Li2S - P2S5-type electrolytes
			7.07.3.6.2 Ternary sulfide electrolytes
	7.07.4 Surface modification
		7.07.4.1 Strategies for surface modification
		7.07.4.2 Synthesis of surface modified lithium-ion battery cathode materials
			7.07.4.2.1 The behavior of metal oxides dispersed in aqueous solution
			7.07.4.2.2 Interfacial deposition mechanisms of ionic species on solid surfaces
			7.07.4.2.3 Surface modification through ‘deposition-precipitation’
			7.07.4.2.4 Surface modification by hydro- or solvothermal synthesis
			7.07.4.2.5 Surface modification by sol(ution)-gel synthesis
			7.07.4.2.6 Post-synthesis thermal treatment
	7.07.5 Conclusion
	References
7.08. Nanostructured materials for electrochemical capacitors
	Content
	Abstract
	7.08.1 Introduction to electrochemical capacitors
		7.08.1.1 Examples of devices
		7.08.1.2 Energy storage of batteries vs. electrochemical capacitors
		7.08.1.3 Electrochemical capacitor applications
	7.08.2 Electrochemical capacitor mechanisms
		7.08.2.1 Electric double layer capacitance
		7.08.2.2 Pseudocapacitance
	7.08.3 Electrochemical capacitor materials and applications
		7.08.3.1 Activated carbon
		7.08.3.2 Manganese oxides
		7.08.3.3 Insertion-type materials
		7.08.3.4 Other materials
	7.08.4 Future directions and opportunities
	References
7.09. Development of polyanionic sodium-ion battery insertion materials
	Content
	Abstract
	7.09.1 Introduction
	7.09.2 Phosphate class of polyanionic cathodes
		7.09.2.1 NASICON-type phosphates
		7.09.2.2 Olivine phosphates
		7.09.2.3 Pyrophosphates
		7.09.2.4 Metaphosphates
		7.09.2.5 Alluaudite phosphates
	7.09.3 Sulfate class of polyanionic cathodes
		7.09.3.1 Bisulfates
		7.09.3.2 Alluaudite sulfates
	7.09.4 Other polyanionic cathodes
		7.09.4.1 Borates
		7.09.4.2 Silicates
		7.09.4.3 Alluaudites
	7.09.5 Mixed polyanionic cathodes
		7.09.5.1 Fluorophosphates
			7.09.5.1.1 Vanadium-based fluorophosphates
			7.09.5.1.2 Other fluorophosphates
		7.09.5.2 Mixed phosphates [(PO4)(P2O7)]
			7.09.5.2.1 Na4M3(PO4)2P2O7 (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni)
			7.09.5.2.2 Na7V4(P2O7)4PO4
		7.09.5.3 Fluorosulfates
		7.09.5.4 Hydroxyosulfates
		7.09.5.5 Carbonophosphates
		7.09.5.6 Nitridophosphates
		7.09.5.7 Oxalate derivatives
		7.09.5.8 Phosphosulfates
		7.09.5.9 Phosphonitrates
	7.09.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgement
	References
7.10. Electrode materials viewed with transmission electron microscopy
	Content
	Abstract
	7.10.1 Introduction
	7.10.2 Transmission electron microscopy techniques in brief
		7.10.2.1 TEM data visualization, manipulation and treatment
		7.10.2.2 (S)TEM image simulation
	7.10.3 Electron beam damage in transmission electron microscopy
	7.10.4 Electron diffraction techniques for metal-ion battery electrodes
	7.10.5 Imaging of the local crystal and defect structure
		7.10.5.1 Point defects and order-disorder in electrode materials
		7.10.5.2 Planar defects
		7.10.5.3 Phase boundaries, grain boundaries and surfaces
		7.10.5.4 Imaging in 3D
	7.10.6 Spectroscopy with electrons
	7.10.7 In situ and operando observations of electrochemical reactions
	7.10.8 Conclusions and outlook
	Acknowledgement
	References
7.11. Chemistry of Li-air batteries
	Content
	Abstract
	7.11.1 Introduction
	7.11.2 Positive electrode
		7.11.2.1 Discharge process
			7.11.2.1.1 General reaction pathway
			7.11.2.1.2 Superoxide anion formation and solvation. Surface and solution-mediated mechanism
			7.11.2.1.3 Fundamental aspects of lithium peroxide crystallization
			7.11.2.1.4 Lithium peroxide deposition in porous electrode
		7.11.2.2 Charge process
		7.11.2.3 Heterogeneous ORR/OER catalysts
	7.11.3 Negative electrode
		7.11.3.1 Many shapes of lithium
		7.11.3.2 Mechanisms of morphological instability
		7.11.3.3 Steps toward uniform deposition
			7.11.3.3.1 SEI design
			7.11.3.3.2 Electrolyte design
			7.11.3.3.3 Electrode design
			7.11.3.3.4 Alternative anode materials
	7.11.4 Reactions with reactive oxygen species
		7.11.4.1 Electrolyte decomposition
		7.11.4.2 Carbon electrode degradation
	7.11.5 Redox mediators
		7.11.5.1 Basic principles
		7.11.5.2 Redox mediators for charge
		7.11.5.3 “Shuttle effect”
		7.11.5.4 Redox mediators for discharge
		7.11.5.5 Bifunctional and dual mediators
	7.11.6 Concluding remarks and future prospects
	References
7.12. Mineral inspired electrode materials for metal-ion batteries
	Content
	Abstract
	7.12.1 Introduction
	7.12.2 Phosphate minerals in pegmatites
	7.12.3 Olivine-type cathode materials LiMPO4
		7.12.3.1 Trihylite LiFePO4
		7.12.3.2 LiMPO4 (M = Mn, Co, Ni)
	7.12.4 NASICON–type materials, structurally related to kosnarite, KZr2(PO4)3
		7.12.4.1 Li3V2(PO4)3
		7.12.4.2 Na3V2(PO4)3
		7.12.4.3 A3Ti2(PO4)3, A = Li, Na
	7.12.5 Electrode materials structurally related to natisite, Na2TiSiO5
		7.12.5.1 Na3V2(PO4)2F3
		7.12.5.2 Na3V2(PO4)2(O,F)3
	7.12.6 Tavorite based electrode materials
		7.12.6.1 LiVPO4Y (Y = F, O)
		7.12.6.2 LiMPO4F (M = Fe, Ti)
		7.12.6.3 Fluoride sulfates LiMSO4F
	7.12.7 Electrode materials structurally related to katiarsite, KTiOAsO4
		7.12.7.1 KVPO4+δdF1-δ
		7.12.7.2 KTiPO4+δF1-δ
	7.12.8 Concluding remarks
	7.12.9 Appendix
		7.12.9.1 The list of mentioned minerals
	Acknowledgment
	References
7.13. Computational design of materials for metal-ion batteries
	Content
	Abstract
	7.13.1 Introduction. Metal-ion batteries - state of the art and the role of computational design
	7.13.2 Materials and main characteristics of batteries
		7.13.2.1 Classification of ion conducting materials
		7.13.2.2 Battery Characteristics
	7.13.3 Computational design of ion conducting materials
		7.13.3.1 Prerequisites for high ionic conductivity in solids
		7.13.3.2 Simulation techniques
			7.13.3.2.1 Geometrical/topological analysis
			7.13.3.2.2 Bond valence sum energy modeling
			7.13.3.2.3 Classical molecular dynamics and kinetic Monte Carlo simulations
			7.13.3.2.4 Density functional theory calculations
		7.13.3.3 Software for modeling ion conducting materials
			7.13.3.3.1 Software for geometrical/topological analysis
			7.13.3.3.2 Software for BVSE modeling
			7.13.3.3.3 Software for classical MD and KMC simulations
			7.13.3.3.4 Software for DFT modeling
		7.13.3.4 Databases of ion conducting materials
	7.13.4 Modeling versus experiment: A comparison
	7.13.5 Conclusions
	References
	Relevant Websites
7.14. Lithium sulfur batteries: Electrochemistry and mechanistic research
	Content
	Abstract
	7.14.1 Lithium–sulfur batteries
		7.14.1.1 Operational principles
		7.14.1.2 Problems and challenges
		7.14.1.3 Common materials and parameters
			7.14.1.3.1 Cathodes
			7.14.1.3.2 Anodes
			7.14.1.3.3 Electrolyte
			7.14.1.3.4 Separator
		7.14.1.4 Characterization techniques used in Li-S battery mechanistic research
			7.14.1.4.1 Electrochemical techniques
			7.14.1.4.2 Modeling
			7.14.1.4.3 Chromatographic analysis
			7.14.1.4.4 Liquid electrolyte physicochemical properties determination
			7.14.1.4.5 X-ray techniques
			7.14.1.4.6 Optical spectroscopy
			7.14.1.4.7 Microscopy
			7.14.1.4.8 Nuclear magnetic and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy
		7.14.1.5 Li-S battery mechanism
		7.14.1.6 Summary
	References
7.15. Fundamentals and applications of enzymatic bioelectrocatalysis
	Content
	Abstract
	7.15.1 Introduction to bioelectrocatalysis
	7.15.2 Principles of bioelectrocatalysts
		7.15.2.1 Enzymes
			7.15.2.1.1 Chemical nature of enzymes
			7.15.2.1.2 Enzyme specificity
			7.15.2.1.3 Principles of enzyme catalysis
			7.15.2.1.4 Fundamentals of enzyme kinetics
			7.15.2.1.5 Factors impacting enzyme activity
			7.15.2.1.6 Enzyme classifications: Metalloenzyme and non-metalloenzymes
		7.15.2.2 Enzymatic bioelectrocatalysts
		7.15.2.3 Enzyme cascades
		7.15.2.4 Enzyme engineering
			7.15.2.4.1 Rational design of proteins
			7.15.2.4.2 Directed evolution
	7.15.3 Electron transfer mechanisms
		7.15.3.1 Mediated electron transfer (MET)
		7.15.3.2 Direct electron transfer (DET)
	7.15.4 Electrodes, electrode materials, and bioelectrocatalyst-electrode connections
		7.15.4.1 Electrodes and electrode materials
			7.15.4.1.1 High surface area electrodes
			7.15.4.1.2 Nanostructured electrodes
		7.15.4.2 Enzyme bioelectrocatalyst-electrode connections and immobilization strategies
	7.15.5 Applications
		7.15.5.1 Biosensors
			7.15.5.1.1 Principles
			7.15.5.1.2 Characterization of the analytical performance of electrochemical enzymatic biosensors
			7.15.5.1.3 Electron transfer in electrochemical enzymatic biosensors
				7.15.5.1.3.1 First-generation biosensors
				7.15.5.1.3.2 Second-generation biosensors
				7.15.5.1.3.3 Third generation biosensors
			7.15.5.1.4 Electrochemical enzymatic biosensing applications
				7.15.5.1.4.1 Biosensors for environmental sensing
				7.15.5.1.4.2 Biosensors for analysis of food and beverage quality
				7.15.5.1.4.3 Biosensors for clinical sensing and medical diagnostics
				7.15.5.1.4.4 Wearable electrochemical biosensors
				7.15.5.1.4.5 Self-powered biosensors
		7.15.5.2 Enzymatic fuel cells
			7.15.5.2.1 Principles
			7.15.5.2.2 Electrochemical methods for characterization of enzymatic fuel cells
				7.15.5.2.2.1 Open circuit voltage, polarization and power curves, and power generation
				7.15.5.2.2.2 Cyclic voltammetry
				7.15.5.2.2.3 Rotating disk electrode voltammetry
				7.15.5.2.2.4 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
			7.15.5.2.3 Applications of enzymatic biofuel cells
		7.15.5.3 Bioelectrosynthesis
			7.15.5.3.1 Principles
			7.15.5.3.2 Characterization of enzymatic electrosynthesis performance
			7.15.5.3.3 Advances in enzymatic electrosynthesis
				7.15.5.3.3.1 Cofactor regeneration
				7.15.5.3.3.2 Enzymatic bioelectrochemical CO2 conversion
				7.15.5.3.3.3 Enzymatic electrochemical N2 reduction
				7.15.5.3.3.4 Enzymatic electrochemical H2 production
	7.15.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
7.16. Benchmarking in electrocatalysis
	Content
	Abbreviations
	Abstract
	7.16.1 Introduction
	7.16.2 Factors affecting the rate of an electrocatalytic reaction
		7.16.2.1 Overpotential and its nature
		7.16.2.2 Charge-transfer overpotential for a single electron step
		7.16.2.3 Multi-electron processes
		7.16.2.4 Influence of adsorption
		7.16.2.5 Double-layer effects
		7.16.2.6 Mass-transport effects
		7.16.2.7 Ohmic effects
		7.16.2.8 Faradaic efficiency (FE)
	7.16.3 Electrocatalytic materials
	7.16.4 Evaluation of the real surface area of electrocatalysts
		7.16.4.1 Non-electrochemical methods
			7.16.4.1.1 Microscopy and diffraction techniques
			7.16.4.1.2 Gas-phase adsorption techniques
		7.16.4.2 Electrochemical methods
			7.16.4.2.1 Hydrogen adsorption/desorption
			7.16.4.2.2 Formation/reduction of surface (hydr)oxides
			7.16.4.2.3 CO stripping and metal UPD
			7.16.4.2.4 Red-ox pseudocapacitance
			7.16.4.2.5 Double layer capacitance
	7.16.5 Experimental measurement of the electrocatalytic activity
		7.16.5.1 Measurements in a 3-electrode liquid electrolyte cell
			7.16.5.1.1 The rotating disk electrode (RDE)
				7.16.5.1.1.1 Brief description of the RDE
				7.16.5.1.1.2 Application of the RDE for studies of planar electrodes
				7.16.5.1.1.3 Application of the RDE for studies of modified electrodes
				7.16.5.1.1.4 Application of the RDE for studies of nanoparticles and porous materials
			7.16.5.1.2 The rotating ring-disk electrode (RRDE) and other dual-electrode methods
		7.16.5.2 Measurements with a membrane-electrode assembly (MEA)
		7.16.5.3 Other methods
			7.16.5.3.1 Half-cell measurements with gas-diffusion electrodes (GDE)
			7.16.5.3.2 Microelectrode techniques
	7.16.6 Activity metrics
		7.16.6.1 Overpotential at a defined current density
		7.16.6.2 Onset potential and half-wave potential
		7.16.6.3 Kinetic current density
		7.16.6.4 Exchange current density
		7.16.6.5 Turnover frequency
		7.16.6.6 Tafel slope
		7.16.6.7 Faradaic efficiency
	7.16.7 Best practice for evaluating performance of electrocatalysts
		7.16.7.1 Catalytic layer (CL)
			7.16.7.1.1 Ascertaining materials stability
			7.16.7.1.2 Electrode conditioning and pretreatment
			7.16.7.1.3 Homogeneity of the thin catalyst film
			7.16.7.1.4 Conductivity of the catalytic layer (CL)
			7.16.7.1.5 Co-catalytic materials
			7.16.7.1.6 Catalyst loading and utilization
		7.16.7.2 Choice of the supporting electrolyte
		7.16.7.3 Choice of the electrochemical cell, counter and reference electrode
		7.16.7.4 Measurement protocol
		7.16.7.5 Data analysis and reporting
	7.16.8 Summary and outlook
	Acknowledgments
	References