Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications: An Integrated Approach to Energy Resource Optimization

Combined_Heating_Cooling_and_Power_Handbook_Technologies_&_Applications.pdf......Page 2
DEDICATION......Page 6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 7
FOREWORD......Page 8
INTRODUCTION......Page 9
CONTENTS......Page 4
PART 1: Theory and Technology......Page 12
Table of Contents......Page 0
Section I: Optimizing Heat and Power Resources......Page 13
CHAPTER ONE: Heat and Power Resources Over view......Page 14
PRIME MOVER CYCLE TERMINOLOGY......Page 15
REGULATORY TERMINOLOGY APPLIED TO PRIME MOVER CYCLES......Page 16
SUMMARY......Page 17
ENERGY......Page 20
HEAT AND WORK......Page 21
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS......Page 22
CARNOT CYCLE......Page 23
PRACTICE VERSUS THEORY......Page 25
FUEL-SPECIFIC EFFICIENCY AND HEAT RATE......Page 26
Energy-Chargeable-to-Power......Page 27
RELATIONSHIP OF ECP, FCP, AND CCP......Page 28
SUMMARY EXAMPLES......Page 29
BEYOND ECP, FCP, AND CCP......Page 32
CONVENTIONAL UTILITY RANKINE STEAM CYCLE PANTS......Page 33
CONVENTIONAL UTILITY GAS TURBINE CYCLE PEAKING PLANTS......Page 35
COMBINED-CYCLES......Page 36
On-Site Application of Conventional and Advanced Cycle Plants......Page 37
LOCALIZED ON-SITE ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION VS. CENTRALIZED POWER PLANT......Page 38
APPLIED COGENERATION CYCLES......Page 39
Cogeneration Cycle Efficiency Example......Page 40
COGENERATION CYCLE COMPARISON......Page 41
APPLICATION OF COGENERATION CYCLES ONSITE VS. PURCHASED ELECTRICITY......Page 42
COMPARISON OF ON-SITE ELECTRIC GENERATION VS. MECHANICAL DRIVE SERVICES......Page 43
PERFORMANCE RATINGS......Page 44
THE IMPACT OF EMISSIONS CONTROL REQUIREMENTS ON PRIME MOVER SELECTION......Page 45
Comparison of Combustion Gas Turbines and Reciprocating Engines......Page 46
Comparison of Alternative Prime Mover Options......Page 47
Section II: Thermal Technologies......Page 50
OXIDATION......Page 51
HIGHER AND LOWER HEATING VALUES OF FUELS......Page 52
PIPELINE NATURAL GAS......Page 53
MANUFACTURED GASES......Page 56
OIL......Page 57
AIR AND COMBUSTION......Page 58
FLUE GAS AND COMBUSTION ANALYSIS......Page 62
COAL......Page 64
HYDROGEN......Page 65
GEOTHERMAL......Page 66
WIND AND WATER......Page 67
BIOMASS......Page 68
REFUSE-DERIVED FUELS......Page 69
DEFINITIONS......Page 70
STEAM PROPERTIES......Page 71
USING STEAM TABLES......Page 73
MOLLIER DIAGRAM......Page 75
THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF STEAM......Page 76
VALUE OF STEAM AS A HEAT TRANSFER MEDIUM......Page 77
VALUE OF STEAM FOR PRODUCING USEFUL SHAFT WORK......Page 78
BOILER OPERATION......Page 89
HEAT TRANSFER......Page 91
HEAT EXCHANGERS......Page 93
FIRETUBE BOILERS......Page 94
Fuel Flow Path in Firetube Boilers......Page 95
WATERTUBE BOILERS......Page 96
Watertube Boiler Circulation......Page 98
PACKAGED VERSUS FIELD-ERECTED BOILERS......Page 100
FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION......Page 102
BOILER CONTROLS AND COMBUSTION SYSTEMS......Page 103
Combustion Air Systems......Page 104
Feedwater Control Systems......Page 105
IMPACT OF FUEL TYPE AND ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS......Page 106
GASEOUS AND LIQUID FUELS......Page 107
Refuse Fuel Boilers......Page 108
Wood and Biomass Boilers......Page 110
Gasification......Page 112
SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY SYSTEMS......Page 113
HEAT RECOVERY APPLICATION OVERVIEW......Page 118
Quantifying Available Rejected Heat......Page 119
Quantifying Storage......Page 120
HEAT RECOVERY HEAT EXCHANGERS......Page 121
HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS......Page 122
Reciprocating Engine Coolant System Heat Recovery......Page 123
HEAT RECOVERY BOILERS......Page 125
FIRETUBE BOILERS......Page 127
WATERTUBE BOILERS......Page 129
ONCE-THROUGH HRSG......Page 130
SUPPLEMENTARY-FIRED SYSTEMS......Page 131
FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT RECOVERY EFFICIENCY......Page 133
PERFORMANCE CORRECTION FACTORS......Page 136
HEAT RECOVERY AT MULTIPLE STEAM PRESSURES......Page 137
Section III: Prime Mover Technologies......Page 139
Two- and Four-Stroke Cycle Reciprocating Engines......Page 140
OTTO CYCLE......Page 141
DIESEL CYCLE......Page 142
ACTUAL CYCLE PERFORMANCE......Page 143
COMPARISON OF OTTO- AND DIESEL-CYCLE ENGINES......Page 144
ENGINE FRAME......Page 145
CYLINDERS AND PISTONS......Page 146
CONVERTING PISTON RECIPROCATING MOTION TO SHAFT CIRCULAR MOTION......Page 149
WORK AND POWER EXPRESSIONS......Page 150
ENGINE ASPIRATION SYSTEMS (INTAKE AND EXHAUST)......Page 152
SUPERCHARGERS AND TURBOCHARGERS......Page 154
FUEL DELIVERY AND COMBUSTION SYSTEMS......Page 157
COMBUSTION CONTROL IN SPARK-IGNITED ENGINES......Page 158
COMBUSTION CONTROL IN DIESEL ENGINES......Page 162
COMBUSTION CONTROL IN DUAL-FUEL ENGINES......Page 163
ENGINE COOLANT SYSTEMS AND HEAT RECOVERY......Page 164
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS......Page 166
RECIPROCATING ENGINE SELECTION......Page 167
ENGINE RATING STANDARDS AND PERFORMANCE ADJUSTMENT FACTORS......Page 168
ENGINE MAINTENANCE, RELIABILITY AND LIFE......Page 170
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE ENGINE DESIGNS......Page 172
Open and Closed Cycles......Page 180
OPERATING CYCLE......Page 181
GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS AND OPERATION......Page 183
COMPRESSOR......Page 184
COMBUSTOR......Page 185
COOLING SYSTEMS......Page 189
CONTROL SYSTEMS......Page 192
Fuel Supply Pressure......Page 193
GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE......Page 194
IMPACT OF AMBIENT CONDITIONS......Page 196
COMBUSTION GAS TURBINE EXHAUST AND HEAT RECOVERY......Page 198
CYCLE MODIFICATIONS & ENHANCEMENTS......Page 200
MAINTENANCE......Page 202
Three basic steps can prevent hot corrosion:......Page 203
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE COMBUSTION GAS TURBINE DESIGNS......Page 204
MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT......Page 212
Ericsson Cycle......Page 214
EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATIONS......Page 215
APPLIED TECHNOLOGY TYPES......Page 217
Cycle Enhancements......Page 220
TYPES OF SERVICE APPLICATIONS......Page 221
Steam Turbine Blades and Flow Path Design......Page 222
GOVERNORS......Page 224
CONTROL VALVES......Page 225
CONTROL VARIABLES......Page 226
Instrumentation......Page 228
CONDENSING PROCESS......Page 229
Ideal Rankine Cycle......Page 230
ACTUAL RANKINE CYCLE......Page 232
CONDENSING VS BACK-PRESSURE TURBINE PERFORMANCE......Page 235
PART LOAD PERFORMANCE......Page 237
FACTORS AFFECTING SINGLE- AND MULTI-STAGE TURBINE PERFORMANCE......Page 238
STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE EXAMPLES......Page 239
B. Actual Conditions......Page 241
B. Actual Conditions......Page 242
B. Back-Pressure Steam Turbine Operation......Page 243
CONCLUSIONS (EXAMPLES 1-3)......Page 244
B. Actual Conditions......Page 245
B. Actual Conditions......Page 246
B. Back-Pressure Steam Turbine Operation......Page 247
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE STEAM TURBINE DESIGNS......Page 248
COMBINED-CYCLE SYSTEMS......Page 252
COMBINED-CYCLE COGENERATION SYSTEMS......Page 255
COMBINED-CYCLE APPLICATIONS......Page 257
STEAM INJECTION CYCLES......Page 258
SUPPLEMENTARY-FIRED SYSTEMS......Page 261
COMPARISON OF COMBINED-CYCLE AND STEAM INJECTION SYSTEMS......Page 262
CONTROL GOVERNORS......Page 264
CONTROL PARAMETERS......Page 267
CONTROL LAGS AND GOVERNOR DESIGNS......Page 268
EXAMPLES OF PRIME MOVER CONTROL SYSTEMS......Page 271
HYDROPOWER......Page 274
Impulse Turbines......Page 276
Reaction Turbines......Page 277
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE......Page 279
APPLICATIONS......Page 280
TIDAL POWER......Page 283
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND FUTURE MARKETS......Page 284
WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS......Page 285
WECS TECHNOLOGY......Page 287
LIFT, DRAG, AND STALL......Page 288
WECS COMPONENTS......Page 289
PERFORMANCE......Page 291
Performance Example......Page 292
APPLICATION ASSESSMENT......Page 293
RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND MARKET PENETRATION POTENTIAL......Page 299
Market Penetration......Page 301
PV Effect......Page 302
Materials and Cell Design......Page 303
Absorption Material Selection......Page 304
System Types......Page 305
PERFORMANCE......Page 307
Incidence Angle......Page 309
APPLICATIONS......Page 310
FUEL CELLS......Page 314
PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL (PAFC)......Page 315
SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL (SOFC)......Page 316
DEVELOPING FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGIES......Page 317
COSTS AND MARKET PENETRATION ISSUES......Page 318
PART 2: Operating Environment......Page 320
CLEAN AIR ACT AND AMENDMENTS......Page 322
Section IV: Environmental Considerations......Page 321
TITLE 1’S OZONE NONATTAINMENT PROGRAM......Page 323
VOC CONTROLS......Page 324
NOX CONTROLS......Page 325
TITLE 1’S PM-10 NONATTAINMENT PROGRAM......Page 326
TITLE II: MOBILE SOURCE REGULATIONS......Page 327
MACT Standards......Page 328
Control Levels and Schedules......Page 329
Class I Ozone-Depleting Substances......Page 330
U.S. EPA Organization and Role......Page 331
Multi-State Associations......Page 332
SOURCES FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION......Page 333
PRE-CONSTRUCTION PERMITTING OVERVIEW......Page 334
OPERATING PERMIT OVERVIEW......Page 335
Typical Pre-construction Permitting Requirements......Page 336
Representative Information Requirements......Page 337
PRE-CONSTRUCTION PERMITTING: PSD PERMITS......Page 339
BACT Requirements......Page 340
BACT Cost-Effectiveness Test......Page 341
AIR QUALITY MODELING AND AIR QUALITY INCREMENTS......Page 342
Offsets......Page 343
FEDERAL NSR REFORM EFFORT......Page 344
OPERATING PERMITS: THE FEDERAL PROGRAM......Page 345
MONITORING REQUIREMENTS......Page 346
MERGING PERMITS......Page 347
Obtaining Offsets......Page 348
OBTAINING APPROPRIATE PERMIT CONDITIONS......Page 349
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: Emissions Control Measures......Page 350
Pollutant Units Of Measurement......Page 351
NOX Formation......Page 353
NOX Control By Fuel Modification......Page 354
NOX Control By Modification of Combustion Operating Conditions......Page 355
BURNER MODIFICATIONS FOR NOX CONTROL......Page 359
RECIPROCATING ENGINE MODIFICATIONS......Page 361
GAS TURBINE DRY COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY......Page 363
EXHAUST GAS TREATMENT — NOX CONTROLS......Page 366
CO AND HC/VOC CONTROLS......Page 372
Reciprocating Engine Emissions Controls......Page 373
PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES......Page 374
SO2 CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES......Page 375
ECONOMICS OF EMISSIONS CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES......Page 376
Variations in Cost-Effectiveness Methodologies......Page 377
Representative Costs for Emissions Controls......Page 379
REFRIGERANTS......Page 381
CURRENT REGULATIONS......Page 382
ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANTS......Page 383
REFRIGERANT HANDLING AND SAFETY......Page 384
Section V: Utility Industry and Energy Rates......Page 386
CHAPTER NINETEEN: Natural Gas Industry Overview......Page 387
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE......Page 388
NATURAL GAS INDUSTRY RESTRUCTURING — UNBUNDLING OF 636......Page 389
INTEGRATED RESOURCE PLANNING......Page 390
THE CURRENT NATURAL GAS MARKET......Page 392
SELECTING THE BEST RATE......Page 393
SUMMARY......Page 394
CHAPTER TWENTY: Electric Industry Overview......Page 395
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE......Page 396
EXPERIENCE UNDER PURPA......Page 397
Sale of Electricity at the Same Price for Similar Loads......Page 398
IRP......Page 399
DSM OPTIONS......Page 400
EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC UTILITY DSM PROGRAMS......Page 401
ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF DSM PROGRAMS......Page 402
Competitive Bidding......Page 403
ENERGY POLICY ACT OF 1992......Page 404
WHEELING AND OPEN ACCESS TO TRANSMISSION SERVICES......Page 405
Pricing......Page 406
Wholesale Wheeling......Page 407
Retail Wheeling......Page 408
SUMMARY......Page 409
Peak and Off-Peak Loads......Page 412
Seasonal Loads......Page 413
LOAD FACTOR AND USAGE PROFILE......Page 414
ALLOCATION OF COSTS......Page 415
BILLING FACTORS......Page 416
Block Rates......Page 418
Time-of-Use Rates......Page 419
Non-Firm Service Rates......Page 420
Competitive Energy Rates......Page 421
Rate Riders......Page 422
COMMON ELECTRIC RATE SCHEDULES......Page 423
MEASURING ELECTRIC DEMAND......Page 426
SEPARATION OF COMMODITY AND DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION......Page 427
SUMMARY......Page 428
TYPICAL GAS BILL CALCULATION......Page 429
DETERMINING THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF POWER......Page 430
WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST FOR REPRESNTATIVE OPERATING LOAD PROFILES......Page 431
ELECTRIC RATE 1 (TOU)......Page 432
ELECTRIC RATE 3 (RTP)......Page 433
DETERMINING THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST FOR VARIOUS LOAD PROFILES......Page 434
EXPLANATION OF TEN SAMPLE LOAD PROFILES......Page 435
MATCHING ENERGY TECHNOLOGY ALTERNATIVES WITH ELECTRIC RATES AND USAGE PROFILES......Page 439
Multiple-Unit Mechanical Drive Mixed (Hybrid) System Applications......Page 440
Multiple-Unit Cooling (Hybrid) Applications......Page 441
PART 3: Applications......Page 442
NUG CLASSIFICATIONS......Page 444
Section VI: Localized Electric Generation......Page 443
COGENERATION SYSTEMS......Page 445
QF Certification......Page 446
Modular Cogeneration Systems......Page 447
District Heating and Cooling Systems......Page 448
MATCHING CAPACITY WITH LOADS......Page 449
Internal-Use Generation vs. Power Exportation......Page 451
COGENERATION SYSTEM CASE STUDY......Page 453
PEAK-SHAVING/LOAD SHAPING GENERATION......Page 454
PEAK SHAVING/LOAD SHAPING CASE STUDY......Page 456
Peak Shaving/Load Shaping Strategy......Page 457
System Upgrades......Page 458
ELECTRIC RATE SELECTION STRATEGIES......Page 459
RENEWABLE AND ALTERNATIVE ELECTRIC GENERATION OPTIONS......Page 460
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES THAT POWER TRADITIONAL PRIME MOVERS......Page 461
ALTERNATIVE ELECTRIC GENERATOR DRIVER OPTIONS......Page 462
ALTERNATIVE ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION OPTIONS......Page 463
AVAILABILITY AND RELIABILITY......Page 464
STORAGE SYSTEMS......Page 465
LOCALIZED ON-SITE POWER GENERATION PLANT LAYOUT EXAMPLES......Page 467
DEFINITIONS......Page 474
DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT......Page 475
ELECTRICAL POWER......Page 478
AC ELECTRICAL POWER......Page 479
THE POWER TRIANGLE......Page 480
POWER FACTOR......Page 481
SINGLE- AND THREE-PHASE AC POWER......Page 482
INDUCTION GENERATORS......Page 483
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS......Page 484
SINGLE- AND THREE-PHASE GENERATORS......Page 485
GENERATOR CONTROLS......Page 486
GENERATOR SELECTION......Page 487
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS, INSULATION, AND COOLING......Page 488
HARMONICS......Page 489
CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX: GENERATOR DRIVER APPLICATIONS AND SELECTION......Page 491
Reciprocating Engine Characteristics......Page 492
Operations, Maintenance and Reliability......Page 493
USE OF REJECTED HEAT......Page 494
RECIPROCATING ENGINE APPLICATION EXAMPLES......Page 496
Combustion Gas Turbine Characteristics......Page 499
Use of Rejected Heat......Page 500
GAS TURBINE APPLICATION EXAMPLES......Page 501
STEAM INJECTIONCYCLE SYSTEMS......Page 503
STEAM INJECTION-CYCLE APPLICATION EXAMPLES......Page 504
CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAM TURBINE SYSTEMS......Page 505
STEAM TURBINE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE......Page 508
Operations, Maintenance and Reliability......Page 509
STEAM TURBINE APPLICATION EXAMPLES......Page 510
COMBINED-CYCLE COGENERATION PLANT CONFIGURATIONS......Page 511
COMPARISON OF COGENERATION AND COMBINED-CYCLE ALTERNATIVES......Page 513
RENEWABLE GENERATOR DRIVER OPTIONS......Page 515
WIND TURBINES......Page 516
RENEWABLE ELECTRIC GENERATION APPLICATION EXAMPLES......Page 517
GENERATOR DRIVER SELECTION PROCESS......Page 519
ELECTRICAL LOADS......Page 520
Boiler Plant Efficiency......Page 521
COGENERATION SYSTEM OPERATIONS ANALYSIS......Page 522
Project Cost......Page 523
Maintenance Requirements......Page 524
SYSTEM SIMULATION AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS......Page 525
Simulation Results......Page 526
Sensitivity Analysis 1......Page 527
CONCLUSIONS......Page 528
CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN: ELECTRIC GENERATOR SWITCHGEAR & CONTROLS......Page 529
PROTECTION......Page 530
CIRCUIT BREAKERS......Page 531
SYNCHRONIZATION......Page 532
LOAD CONTROL......Page 533
MONITORING AND METERING DEVICES......Page 537
Example 1......Page 538
Example 2......Page 539
Example 3......Page 540
Example 4......Page 541
CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT: INTERCONNECTING ELECTRIC GENERATORS......Page 542
CONNECTING WITH THE UTILITY SYSTEM GRID......Page 543
TRANSFORMERS......Page 546
FAULT CONTROL......Page 547
REPRESENTATIVE PROTECTION CONFIGURATIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION......Page 549
MEDIUM VOLTAGE EXAMPLES......Page 550
LOW VOLTAGE EXAMPLES......Page 552
Section VII: Mechanical Drive Services......Page 553
TYPES OF MECHANICAL SERVICE LOADS......Page 554
Types of Motors......Page 555
Motor Ratings and Efficiency......Page 556
Simple-cycle operation......Page 558
RECIPROCATING ENGINES......Page 559
GAS TURBINES......Page 560
STEAM TURBINES......Page 562
MECHANICAL DRIVER PART-LOAD PERFORMANCE......Page 566
APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS AND CAPITAL COST......Page 568
MIXED (HYBRID) MECHANICAL DRIVE SYSTEMS......Page 569
Capital Cost Considerations......Page 570
COMPRESSOR TYPES......Page 572
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS......Page 573
ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSORS......Page 575
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS......Page 576
COMPRESSOR AUXILIARIES......Page 579
AIR COMPRESSOR OPERATION......Page 582
COMPRESSOR DRIVER OPTIONS......Page 584
MATCHING SUPPLY TO DEMAND......Page 586
Example 1......Page 589
Example 2......Page 590
PUMP TYPES......Page 594
PUMP FORMULAS AND AFFINITY LAWS......Page 599
PUMP SELECTION......Page 601
PUMP DRIVER OPTIONS......Page 602
Back-Pressure Steam Turbine Option......Page 606
Driver Option Comparison......Page 607
CONSIDERATION OF RENEWABLE PUMP DRIVER OPTIONS......Page 609
FAN TYPES......Page 612
FAN FORMULAS AND AFFINITY LAWS......Page 613
1. Effect of Speed Variation......Page 615
5. Effect of Varying Inlet Air Density......Page 616
FAN SELECTION AND CONTROL......Page 617
FAN DRIVER OPTIONS......Page 620
Section VIII: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning......Page 623
REFRIGERATION CYCLES......Page 624
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP)......Page 625
Pressure-Enthalpy Chart......Page 626
System Energy Input......Page 627
IPLV AND NPLV......Page 628
CERTIFICATION OF PERFORMANCE......Page 630
EFFECT OF VARYING EVAPORATOR AND CONDENSING TEMPERATURE......Page 632
SOURCE VERSUS END-USE EFFICIENCY......Page 633
AIR-WATER VAPOR MIXTURES......Page 635
THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART......Page 637
COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING AIR......Page 640
STANDARD AIR CONSTANTS......Page 642
LIQUID COOLERS......Page 643
CHILLED WATER PIPING AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS......Page 644
PRIMARY/SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS......Page 645
WATER-SIDE ECONOMIZER CYCLE (FREE COOLING) APPLICATIONS......Page 646
REFRIGERATION-CYCLE TES TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW......Page 647
Ice Systems......Page 648
Load Shifting......Page 649
Downsizing Equipment......Page 650
EVALUATION OF TES APPLICATION OPPORTUNITIES......Page 651
EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATIONS......Page 653
CONDENSER LOAD......Page 654
EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATIONS......Page 656
COOLING TOWER SIZING AND PERFORMANCE......Page 658
WATER TREATMENT......Page 659
WATER USAGE......Page 661
HEAT PUMPS AND HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS......Page 662
TYPES OF HEAT SOURCE AND HEAT SINK MEDIA......Page 663
Water-to-Water......Page 664
ABSORPTION CYCLE AND ENGINE-DRIVEN HEAT PUMPS......Page 665
HEAT PUMP PERFORMANCE......Page 666
REFRIGERATION CYCLE HEAT RECOVERY......Page 667
HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM PERFORMANCE......Page 669
Absorption Cycle Heat Recovery......Page 670
VAPOR COMPRESSION-CYCLE TECHNOLOGIES......Page 671
COMPRESSOR DESIGN......Page 672
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS......Page 673
SCREW COMPRESSORS......Page 675
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS......Page 676
SUCTION AND CONDENSING TEMPERATURE EFFECTS......Page 679
REFRIGERANTS......Page 680
ECONOMIZER CYCLES......Page 681
COMPRESSOR PART-LOAD OPERATION......Page 682
SCREW COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CONTROL......Page 683
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CONTROL......Page 684
HOT GAS BYPASS......Page 685
SPEED CONTROL......Page 686
METERING (THROTTLING) DEVICES......Page 687
VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEM DRIVERS......Page 688
Application Examples......Page 689
RECIPROCATING ENGINE DRIVES......Page 690
Heat Recovery Options......Page 691
Performance......Page 692
Application Examples......Page 694
Heat Recovery......Page 696
Application Examples......Page 697
STEAM TURBINE DRIVES......Page 698
Performance......Page 699
COMPARISON OF DRIVER OPTIONS......Page 700
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION CYCLE......Page 703
Single-Effect LiBr-H2O Cycle Absorption Systems......Page 704
Double Effect LiBr-H2O Cycle Absorption Systems......Page 705
Absorption Chiller/Heaters......Page 708
Triple-Effect Absorption Cycles......Page 710
AMMONIA-WATER ABSORPTION CYCLES......Page 711
GAX Cycles......Page 712
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE......Page 713
SELECTION CRITERIA......Page 714
HEAT RECOVERY APPLICATIONS......Page 715
LOW-TEMPERATURE ABSORPTION APPLICATIONS......Page 716
CONVENTIONAL AND DESICCANT COOLING......Page 718
DESICCANT AIR DRYING PROCESS......Page 719
SOLID ADSORBENTS......Page 720
LIQUID SPRAY TOWER......Page 721
SOLID DESICCANT TOWER (MIXED BEDS)......Page 724
ROTATING BEDS......Page 725
ROTATING WHEEL......Page 726
DESICCANT SYSTEM PERFORMANCE......Page 729
MOISTURE REGAIN PREVENTION......Page 731
MIXED HVAC SYSTEM APPLICATIONS......Page 732
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND BUILDING PROTECTION......Page 733
DESICCANT DEHUMIDIFICATION EXAMPLES......Page 734
PART 4: Analysis and Implementation......Page 737
CHAPTER FORTY: INTEGRATED APPROACH TO ENERGY RESOURCE OPTIMIZATION PROJECTS......Page 739
Section IX: Integrated Approach to Energy Resource Optimization Projects......Page 738
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT PHASES......Page 741
Scoping Audit......Page 743
Detailed Feasibility Study......Page 744
Contracting for Project Implementation......Page 745
Design Phase......Page 746
Baseline and Performance Measurement......Page 748
Baseline Conditions......Page 749
Project Measures......Page 750
EPA NATIONAL VEHICLE & FUEL EMISSIONS LABORATORY PROJECT......Page 751
EMCS......Page 752
Central Heating/Cooling Plant Upgrade......Page 753
RESULTS......Page 754
OVERVIEW OF TECHNICAL ANALYSIS STUDY PROCESSES......Page 756
SCOPING AUDIT......Page 757
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT PLAN......Page 758
PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY STUDY – PHASE 1......Page 759
D. Site Plans and Major System Drawings......Page 761
STEP 3. FIRST SITE VISIT......Page 763
B. Facility Site Plans......Page 764
STEP 4. DATA RETRIEVAL......Page 765
STEP 6. FOLLOW-UP SITE WORK......Page 766
STEP 8. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS......Page 767
DETAILED FEASIBILITY STUDY — PHASE 2......Page 768
MAIN ANALYTICAL COMPONENTS......Page 769
STEP 1. SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE ANALYTICAL TOOLS......Page 771
STEP 2. LOAD DEVELOPMENT......Page 773
STEP 3. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE AND ENERGY USAGE......Page 774
Auxiliary Equipment and Resource Use......Page 775
STEP 4. BASELINE DETERMINATION......Page 776
Accounting for Measure Interactivity......Page 777
STEP 6. REFINEMENTS TO SELECTED PROJECT MEASURES......Page 779
STEP 7. CONSIDERATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER CODE COMPLIANCE IMPACT......Page 780
STEP 8. EVALUATING OM&R REQUIREMENTS......Page 781
STEP 10. DEVELOPING AN INTERACTIVE SUMMARY......Page 782
STEP 11. EQUIPMENT SELECTION......Page 783
STEP 12. BUDGET ESTIMATES OF INCREMENTAL CAPITAL COST......Page 784
STEP 13. LIFE-CYCLE FINANCIAL ANALYSIS......Page 785
STEP 14. FINAL REPORT AND/OR CONTRACT PROPOSAL......Page 786
COMMONLY USED TOOLS......Page 788
FINANCIAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES......Page 789
Discounting......Page 790
Time Value of System Replacement Costs......Page 791
TYPES OF TIME VALUE FINANCIAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES......Page 792
Limitations of NPV and IRR......Page 793
Depreciation......Page 794
SUMMARY......Page 795
PROJECT CONTRACTING......Page 796
Lump Sum (or Firm Fixed Price)......Page 797
Performance Based......Page 798
Third-Party Ownership and Operation Agreement......Page 799
Withholding of Funds......Page 800
FIVE EVALUATION STEPS......Page 801
1. CREDIT WORTHINESS......Page 802
2. PROJECT CASH FLOW......Page 803
3. TAX POSITION, RISK ADVERSITY, AND FINANCIAL GOALS AND STRATEGIES......Page 804
Conventional Financing Vehicles......Page 805
Non-Conventional Utility- or State-Sponsored Financing Vehicles......Page 806
Savings Verification Programs......Page 807
Public Sector Facility Options......Page 808
SIMPLIFIED FINANCING EXAMPLES......Page 809
INTEGRATING PERFORMANCE CONTRACTING AND CONVENTIONAL PROJECT FINANCING......Page 811
OUTSOURCING ENERGY SYSTEMS TO THIRD PARTY OWNERS/OPERATORS......Page 812
OVERVIEW OF POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT APPROACHES......Page 814
RISK MANAGEMENT......Page 815
DESIGN MANAGEMENT APPROACH......Page 816
Deliverables......Page 817
Quality Control......Page 818
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT APPROACH......Page 819
Pre-Construction......Page 821
PROCUREMENT......Page 822
Site Management......Page 824
Start-up......Page 825
QUALITY CONTROL......Page 826
OM&R MANAGEMENT APPROACH......Page 827
OM&R Training Manuals......Page 828
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES......Page 829
In-House Versus Contracted Services......Page 830
ESTABLISH SAVINGS VERIFICATION PROGRAM......Page 831
GENERAL VERIFICATION PROCESS APPROACHES......Page 832
SUMMARY......Page 833
APPENDIX......Page 835
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