Color Science and Shade Selection in Operative Dentistry: Essential Elements for Clinical Success

Preface\nContents\n1: Color Science\n	1.1	 Color Definition\n	1.2	 Color and Its Dimensions\n		1.2.1	 Hue\n		1.2.2	 Value\n		1.2.3	 Chroma\n		1.2.4	 Translucency\n	1.3	 Color Perception\n		1.3.1	 Light\n			1.3.1.1	 Concepts of Illumination\n		1.3.2	 Object\n			1.3.2.1	 Light Reflection, Light Absorption, and Light Transmittance\n			1.3.2.2	 Opalescence and Counter-Opalescence\n			1.3.2.3	 Fluorescence\n		1.3.3	 Observer\n			1.3.3.1	 Visual Phenomena\n			1.3.3.2	 Visual Fatigue\n			1.3.3.3	 Gender\n			1.3.3.4	 Expertise\n			1.3.3.5	 Age\n			1.3.3.6	 Phenomena That Affect Color Perception\n	References\n2: Natural Tooth X Composites Biomimetics\n	2.1	 Optical Properties of the Natural Tooth\n		2.1.1	 Composition of the Natural Tooth Structures\n			2.1.1.1	 Enamel\n			2.1.1.2	 Dentin\n			2.1.1.3	 Dentin–Enamel Junction (DEJ)\n		2.1.2	 Optical Properties\n			2.1.2.1	 Translucency\n			2.1.2.2	 Fluorescence\n			2.1.2.3	 Opalescence and Counter-Opalescence\n	2.2	 Optical Properties of the Resin Composites\n		2.2.1	 Composition of Resin Composites\n			2.2.1.1	 Monomers\n			2.2.1.2	 Fillers\n			2.2.1.3	 Coupling Agent\n			2.2.1.4	 Photoinitiators\n			2.2.1.5	 Pigments\n		2.2.2	 Optical Properties\n			2.2.2.1	 Translucency\n			2.2.2.2	 Fluorescence\n			2.2.2.3	 Opalescence and Counter-Opalescence\n	References\n3: Color Selection in Operative Dentistry\n	3.1	 Illumination\n		3.1.1	 Color Temperature\n		3.1.2	 Light-Correcting Devices\n	3.2	 Color Selection Methods for Composite Restorations\n		3.2.1	 Visual Methods\n			3.2.1.1	 Using Shade Guides for Ceramics\n			3.2.1.2	 Using Shade Guides for Composites\n			3.2.1.3	 Using Personalized Shade Guides\n			3.2.1.4	 Using Increments of Composites\n			3.2.1.5	 Using the Mock-up Technique\n			3.2.1.6	 Visual Color Measurement Technique\n		3.2.2	 Objective Measurements\n	References\n4: Color Evaluation for Research Purposes\n	4.1	 Introduction\n	4.2	 Visual Methods to Evaluate Color\n		4.2.1	 Color Blindness Test or Ishihara Test\n		4.2.2	 Color Perception × Color Acceptance Thresholds\n	4.3	 Digital Methods to Evaluate Color\n		4.3.1	 CIE-Lab and CIE-LCh\n		4.3.2	 Color Difference Formulas (ΔE)\n		4.3.3	 Spectrophotometers and Colorimeters\n		4.3.4	 Digital Photography\n	4.4	 Experimental Designs to Evaluate Color\n		4.4.1	 Clinical Trials\n		4.4.2	 In Vitro Studies\n		4.4.3	 Illumination\n	4.5	 Background\n		4.5.1	 Sample Size and Statistics Analyses\n	References\n5: Dental Photography as a Key to Clinical Success\n	5.1	 Digital Cameras\n		5.1.1	 Smartphones\n		5.1.2	 Compact Cameras\n		5.1.3	 DSLR (Single-Lens Digital Reflection)\n		5.1.4	 Mirrorless Cameras\n		5.1.5	 Specific Cameras for Dentistry\n	5.2	 Knowing the Photographic Equipment and Accessories for Dental Photography\n		5.2.1	 Sensor\n			5.2.1.1	 How Important Is the Size of the Sensor?\n		5.2.2	 Camera Body\n		5.2.3	 Lens\n			5.2.3.1	 Which Lens Should I Use for Dental Photography?\n		5.2.4	 Memory\n			5.2.4.1	 Which File Format Should I Use?\n		5.2.5	 Lighting Equipment for Dental Photography\n			5.2.5.1	 Continuous Light Equipment\n			5.2.5.2	 Flash Equipment\n			5.2.5.3	 Macro-Flash for DSLRs and Mirrorless\n			5.2.5.4	 Studio Flash\n		5.2.6	 Light Modifying Accessories\n			5.2.6.1	 Softboxes and Bouncers\n			5.2.6.2	 Brackets Mount\n		5.2.7	 Accessories for Dental Photography\n			5.2.7.1	 Mouth Retractors\n			5.2.7.2	 Mirrors\n			5.2.7.3	 Black Background\n	5.3	 Fundamentals of Dental Photography: The Exposure Square\n		5.3.1	 Exposure\n			5.3.1.1	 Shutter Speed\n			5.3.1.2	 Impact of Shutter Speed on Image Blur\n			5.3.1.3	 Aperture\n			5.3.1.4	 Impact of Diaphragm Opening on Depth of Field\n			5.3.1.5	 Sensitivity (ISO)\n			5.3.1.6	 Impact of Sensitivity on Image Noise\n		5.3.2	 Master the Exposure of Your Equipment\n	5.4	 Dental Photography with Gray Card\n	5.5	 Cross-Polarization in Dental Photography\n	5.6	 Communication with the Laboratory\n	5.7	 Photography in the Daily Practice of Dentistry\n	5.8	 Final Remarks\n	References\n6: Bleaching Procedures\n	6.1	 Tooth Discoloration Etiology\n	6.2	 Tooth Whitening Techniques\n		6.2.1	 Bleaching Agents\n			6.2.1.1	 Hydrogen Peroxide\n			6.2.1.2	 Carbamide Peroxide\n			6.2.1.3	 Sodium Perborate\n			6.2.1.4	 Alternative Molecules\n		6.2.2	 Vital Tooth Whitening\n			6.2.2.1	 Dentist-Monitored At-Home Bleaching\n			6.2.2.2	 In-Office Bleaching of Vital Teeth\n		6.2.3	 Non-Vital Tooth Whitening\n			6.2.3.1	 Walking Bleaching\n			6.2.3.2	 In-office Internal Bleaching\n	6.3	 Color Measurement for Bleaching Procedures\n		6.3.1	 Patients’ Whiteness Perception\n		6.3.2	 Color Measurement Techniques\n			6.3.2.1	 Shade Guides for Tooth Whitening Monitoring\n			6.3.2.2	 Visual Color Measurement\n			6.3.2.3	 Photographic Register\n	6.4	 Considerations to Bleaching Related to Direct Restorative Approaches\n	References\n7: Biomimetics of the Natural Tooth Using Composites\n	7.1	 Build-Up Layering Techniques\n		7.1.1	 One-Layer Build-Up Technique\n		7.1.2	 Two-Layers Build-Up Technique\n			7.1.2.1	 Classical Two-Layering\n			7.1.2.2	 Natural Two-Layering\n		7.1.3	 Multi-Layers Build-Up Technique\n			7.1.3.1	 Classical Three Layers\n			7.1.3.2	 Modern Three Layers\n			7.1.3.3	 Four or More Layers\n	7.2	 Restorative Planning Using Schematic Drawings\n		7.2.1	 One-Layer Build-Up Technique\n		7.2.2	 Two-Layers Build-Up Technique\n		7.2.3	 Multi-Layers Build-Up Technique\n			7.2.3.1	 Classical Three Layers\n			7.2.3.2	 Modern Three Layers\n			7.2.3.3	 Four or More-Layers\n	References\n8: Finishing and Polishing\n	8.1	 Finishing and Polishing Importance\n	8.2	 Finishing and Polishing Concept\n	8.3	 Finishing and Polishing Systems\n		8.3.1	 Fluted Carbide Finishing Burs\n		8.3.2	 Diamond Finishing Burs\n			8.3.2.1	 Fluted Carbide Finishing Burs vs. Diamond Finishing Burs\n			8.3.2.2	 Finishing Burs Shapes and Their Applications\n		8.3.3	 Impregnated Aluminum Oxide Discs\n		8.3.4	 Impregnated Rubber Cups, Points, and Discs\n		8.3.5	 Interproximal Strips\n		8.3.6	 Impregnated Polishing Brushes\n		8.3.7	 Impregnated Wheels\n		8.3.8	 Felts and Polishing Pastes\n		8.3.9	 Liquid Polishing Systems\n	8.4	 The Artistic Element in Finishing and Polishing\n		8.4.1	 Illusion Effects\n		8.4.2	 Surface Texture\n	References\n9: Color Mismatch Between the Restoration and the Natural Tooth Over Time\n	9.1	 Color Change in Resin Composite Restorations\n		9.1.1	 Discoloration Due to Intrinsic Factors\n			9.1.1.1	 Monomers\n			9.1.1.2	 Photoinitiator System\n				Alternative Photoinitiator Systems\n		9.1.2	 Discoloration Due to Extrinsic Factors\n		9.1.3	 Clinical-Related Factors\n			9.1.3.1	 Material Selection\n			9.1.3.2	 Material Handling\n			9.1.3.3	 Photoactivation\n			9.1.3.4	 Finishing and Polishing Procedures\n		9.1.4	 Material-Related Factors\n			9.1.4.1	 Degradation Process of the Resin Matrix\n			9.1.4.2	 Degradation Process of the Filler Particles\n			9.1.4.3	 Degradation Process of the Silane Layer\n	9.2	 Methods to Minimize Discoloration\n		9.2.1	 Oral Hygiene\n		9.2.2	 Periodic Professional Cleaning\n	9.3	 Methods to Correct Discoloration\n		9.3.1	 Bleaching\n		9.3.2	 Repolishing vs. Replacing\n	References\n10: Longevity of Resin Composite Restorations\n	10.1	 Expectation vs. Reality\n		10.1.1	 Long-Term Survival and Reasons for Failures\n			10.1.1.1	 Dental Caries\n			10.1.1.2	 Fracture\n			10.1.1.3	 Esthetic Demand\n		10.1.2	 Factors Involved in Esthetic Restorations Failure\n			10.1.2.1	 Tooth Factors\n			10.1.2.2	 Patients’ Related Factors\n			10.1.2.3	 Socioeconomic Status\n			10.1.2.4	 Restorative Material\n			10.1.2.5	 Operator\n	10.2	 Repairing Esthetic Composite Restorations\n		10.2.1	 Long-Term Survival and Reasons for Failures of Repaired Restorations\n		10.2.2	 Factors Involved in Repaired Restorations Failure\n		10.2.3	 Repairing Benefits Over Replacing Restorations\n		10.2.4	 When Repairing Is Not a Solution?\n	10.3	 Replacing Esthetic Composite Restorations\n		10.3.1	 Restorations Do Not Last Forever\n		10.3.2	 Aspects That Can Increase the Longevity of Esthetic Composite Restorations\n	References