Cold Plasma in Nano-Matter Synthesis: Basic Principles and Practices

Cover
Half Title
Cold Plasma in Nano-Matter Synthesis: Basic Principles and Practices
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Contents
About the Author
1. Introduction to Nano-Matter and Cold Plasma
	Summary
	Introduction
	1.1 Nano-Matter
	1.2 Why Is Nano-Matter So Unique?
	1.3 Classification of Nano-Matter
		1.3.1 Classification Based on Quantum Confinement
		1.3.2 Classification Based on the Structural Configuration
	1.4 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
	1.5 Fullerenes
	1.6 Graphene
		1.6.1 Graphene Oxide (GO)
	1.7 Dendrimers
	1.8 Quantum Dots (QDs)
	1.9 Plasma
	1.10 Plasma in Material Synthesis
	1.11 Glow Discharge Plasma Characteristics
	1.12 Plasma in Liquids for Nano-Matter Synthesis
	1.13 Plasma as a Surface Engineering Tool
	1.14 Cold Plasma in Medicine and Health Care
	1.15 Plasma in Agriculture and Food Processing
	1.16 Organization of the Book
	Further Reading
2. Plasma Overview and the Basics of Cold Plasma: In Material Synthesis
	Summary
	Introduction
	2.1 Plasma, the Fourth State of Matter—Overview
	2.2 Approach to the Understanding of Plasma
	2.3 Types of Plasma
	2.4 Cold Plasma in Material Synthesis
		2.4.1 Hot and Cold Plasmas
		2.4.2 Dilute or Cold Plasma
	2.5 Glow Discharge
		2.5.1 The Lightning Clouds
		2.5.2 Quasi-Static Nature of Laboratory-Generated  Cold Plasma
	2.6 Paschen Curve and the Glow Discharge
		2.6.1 Detailed Description of the Current (I)–Voltage (V)  Characteristics of the Glow Discharge
	2.7 Gas Discharge in the Laboratory
		2.7.1 DC Discharge
	2.8 The Basic Concept of Using Cold Plasma  in Material Synthesis
	2.9 Plasma Generation
	2.10 Formation of Sheath in the Plasma
		2.10.1 ``Driven'' and ``Undriven'' Sheaths
	2.11 Plasma Frequency and Plasma Oscillations, Electron Plasma Frequency omega Subscript p eωpe
	2.12 Sheath Potential
	2.13 Debye Length
	2.14 Plasma Parameter and Coupling
	2.15 Electron Temperature
	2.16 Power Absorbed: DC
	2.17 Arc Discharges
	2.18 Current (I)–Voltage (V) Characteristics of Arc Plasma
	2.19 AC Discharges
		2.19.1 The RF Plasma
	2.20 Power Absorbed: RF
	2.21 Inductively Coupled Plasmas at High Pressure and Low Pressure
	2.22 EM Wave-Generated Plasmas
	2.23 Microwave Plasma
	2.24 Resonant Cavities
	2.25 Transmission Lines
	2.26 Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) Plasma
	2.27 Helicon Plasma
		2.27.1 Wave/Resonant Heating
	2.28 Atmospheric Pressure Plasmas
		2.28.1 Dielectric Barrier Discharges (DBDs)
		2.28.2 Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jets (APPJ)
		2.28.3 Low-Frequency (LF) Plasma Jet Generated by a  Single High-Voltage (HV) Electrode
	2.29 Atmospheric Plasma Jets in Liquids
	2.30 Microplasma
	2.31 Corona
	2.32 Plasma in Liquids
		2.32.1 Thermal Breakdown Mechanism
3. Cold Plasma Diagnostics: Basics and Working Principles
	Summary
	Introduction
	3.1 Characterization of Cold Plasma—Basic Principles
		3.1.1 Magnetic Probes
		3.1.2 Rogowski Coil
		3.1.3 Langmuir Probe
		3.1.4 Far Infrared Interferometry
		3.1.5 Reflectometry
		3.1.6 Electron Cyclotron Emission Imaging
		3.1.7 Bolometry
		3.1.8 Microwave Techniques
		3.1.9 Mass Spectroscopy Techniques
	3.2 Langmuir Probes: Electrical Measurements
		3.2.1 Ion Saturation Current
		3.2.2 Floating Potential upper V Subscript fVf
		3.2.3 Electron Temperature left parenthesis upper T Subscript e Baseline right parenthesis(Te)
		3.2.4 Electron Distribution Function
	3.3 Langmuir Double Probe
		3.3.1 Langmuir Probes in RF Excited Plasmas
	3.4 Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES)
	3.5 Microwave Interferometer
		3.5.1 Plasma Density Determination by the Laser Interferometer
	3.6 Diagnostics for Atmospheric Pressure Plasma and Plasma Jets (APPJ)
		3.6.1 Electrical Characterization: Power Balance Method
		3.6.2 Optical Technique: Polarization Spectroscopy
	Futher Readings
4. Nano-Matter: Synthesis Techniques—An Overview
	Summary
	Introduction
	4.1 Synthesis Techniques—An Overview
	4.2 Mechanical Ball Milling
	4.3 Electrospinning
	4.4 Lithography
		4.4.1 Note on Photoresists
	4.5 Soft Lithography
	4.6 Nanoimprint Lithography
		4.6.1 Embossing Technique
	4.7 Scanning Probe Lithography (SPL)
	4.8 Dip-Pen Lithography (DPL)
	4.9 Sputtering
	4.10 The Arc Discharge Method
	4.11 Pulsed Laser Ablation/Pulsed Laser Deposition
	4.12 Thermal Decomposition
	4.13 Chemical Vapor Deposition
	4.14 Hot-Wire CVD (Catalytic CVD)
	4.15 Wet Chemistry—Coprecipitation Methods
	4.16 Sonochemical Coprecipitation
	4.17 High-Gravity Reactive Precipitation (HGRP)
	4.18 Sol–Gel
	4.19 Microemulsion (Micelles) Technique
		4.19.1 Reverse-Micelle Method
	4.20 Solvothermal and Hydrothermal Synthesis
	4.21 Soft and Hard Templating
	4.22 Nanometer Thin Films
	4.23 Deposition Sources
	4.24 General Types of Processing Discharges
	4.25 Nano-sized Cluster Thin Film Synthesis with Vapor Deposition Techniques
	4.26 Nanometer Thin Film Formation and Defects
	Futher Readings
5. Cold Plasma-Assisted Nano-Matter Synthesis: Basic Principles and Techniques
	Summary
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 The Uniqueness of Plasma Processing of Nano-Matter
		5.1.2 Nano-Sized Cluster Thin Film Synthesis with Plasma-Assisted Vapor Deposition Techniques
	5.2 Plasma Sources for Nano-Matter Synthesis
	5.3 Basics of Sputtering
		5.3.1 Basic Principle of a Planar Magnetron
		5.3.2 Note on the Velocity and Energy Distribution in Magnetron Plasma
		5.3.3 Magnetic Field Configurations and Bias to the Substrate
		5.3.4 Types of Magnetron Sputtering
		5.3.5 Reactive Sputtering
		5.3.6 DC Magnetron Sputtering and Arcing
		5.3.7 Pulsed DC Magnetron Sputtering
	5.4 RF Magnetron Sputtering
		5.4.1 Hollow Cathode Sputtering/Gas Flow Sputtering (GFS)
	5.5 HiPIMS
		5.5.1 Electrical Parameters and Power Supply
		5.5.2 Plasma Properties in HiPIMS
		5.5.3 Advantages of HiPIMS
		5.5.4 Challenges
	5.6 Ion Beam and Ion Beam-Assisted Deposition (IBAD)
		5.6.1 Basic Principle of Ion Beam Sputtering
		5.6.2 Design of Ion Beam Source
	5.7 Pulse Laser Deposition (PLD)
		5.7.1 Process Parameters in PLD
		5.7.2 Light–Matter Interaction
		5.7.3 Plasma-Generation
		5.7.4 Stages of Thin Film Formation in PLD
		5.7.5 Macroscopic Particulate Production
		5.7.6 Femtosecond left parenthesis f s right parenthesis(fs) Ablation
		5.7.7 Note on Biological Coatings by PLD
	5.8 Arc Discharges
		5.8.1 Typical Plasma Parameters of Arc Plasmas
	5.9 Plasma-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD)
		5.9.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
		5.9.2 CVD Reactors
		5.9.3 Capacitively Coupled PECVD
		5.9.4 Microwave Assisted PECVD
	5.10 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)
	5.11 Plasma in Liquids (PLI)
		5.11.1 Specific Electrode Materials and Electrode Geometries
		5.11.2 External Plasma in Contact with the Liquid
	5.12 Induction Plasma (Hot Plasma) in Nano-Matter Synthesis
6. Nucleation, Thermodynamics, and Growth Kinetics of 2D Materials
	Summary
	6.1 Homogeneous Nucleation and Thermodynamics
		6.1.1 Nucleation Rate
	6.2 Classical Nucleation Theory and the Growth of Two-Dimensional Matter
	6.3 Macroscopic Thermodynamics (Bulk Thermodynamics)
	6.4 Nucleation Process: Qualitative Treatment
	6.5 Thermodynamics of Nucleation of Thin Films
		6.5.1 Nucleation Rate
		6.5.2 The Factors that Influence Nucleation
	6.6 Growth Processes
		6.6.1 Thin Film Nucleation
		6.6.2 The Capillarity Model
		6.6.3 Atomistic (Statistical) Model
		6.6.4 Non-equilibrium Growth Modes
	6.7 Diffusion Coefficient left parenthesis upper D right parenthesis(D)
		6.7.1 Oriented Attachment (OA) in Nano-Matter
		6.7.2 Critical Island Size bold italic upper SS
		6.7.3 The Island Stage
		6.7.4 The Coalescence Stage
		6.7.5 The Channel Stage
		6.7.6 The Continuous Film
	6.8 Energy for the Thin Film Nucleation and Growth During Magnetron Sputtering
		6.8.1 General Considerations
		6.8.2 Energy Control
	6.9 Zone Models
		6.9.1 The Early Work on Zone Models
		6.9.2 Thornton Structure Zone Model
		6.9.3 Correlation on Structure Evolution in Elemental Thin Films
		6.9.4 Anders Zone Model
	Further Reading
7. Nucleation of Nano-Matter and Nano-Thermodynamics
	Summary
	7.1 Nucleation of Nano-Matter
		7.1.1 Nucleation in Nano-Matter in Plasma-Assisted Synthesis
		7.1.2 Average Nanoparticle Charge
		7.1.3 Particle Size and Distribution
	7.2 Nanoparticle Nucleation in Cold Plasma
	7.3 Nucleation and Deposition Parameters
	7.4 Nano-Thermodynamics
		7.4.1 Size Effects and Fluctuations in the Statistical Approach of Nano-Matter
		7.4.2 Nano-Thermodynamics and Hill's Theory
		7.4.3 Gibbs–Thomson Equation
		7.4.4 Growth Controlled by Diffusion
		7.4.5 Growth Controlled by Surface Process
	7.5 Thermodynamically Stable Nanostructures
	7.6 Kinetically Limited Growth in Homoepitaxy
	7.7 Nanostructure Formation in Heteroepitaxial Growth
	Further Reading
8. A Brief History and Chronology of Plasma
Appendix A. Saha Ionization Equation
Appendix B. Plasma Chemistry
	Surface Reactions
	Plasma Etching
Appendix C. Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAM)
	Attaching Molecules to Surfaces
	Preparation of Substrates
	Preparation of Self-Assembled Monolayers
	Application
Appendix D. Useful Constants and Formulae
	Commonly Used Physical Constants
	Formulae in SI Units
	Formulae with Te in eV, ne and ni in Cm-3, and Wavelength λL in  μm
Appendix E. Problems and Exercises
	Chapter 1
	Chapter 2
	Chapter 3
	Chapter 4
	Chapter 5
	Chapter 6
	Chapter 7
Index