Coastal Wetlands: An Integrated Ecosystem Approach

Coastal Wetlands: An Integrated Ecosystem Approach......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents
......Page 6
Preface......Page 20
List of Contributors......Page 22
List of Reviewers......Page 32
1 Introduction......Page 34
2 A Synthesis of Coastal Wetlands Science......Page 35
2.1 Geography......Page 36
2.2 Geomorphology evolution under climate change......Page 37
2.3 The influence of vegetation on the geomorphology evolution with climate change......Page 39
2.4 The stabilizing role of vegetation......Page 42
2.5 State change and coastal evolution......Page 46
2.6 The role of physical disturbances......Page 47
2.7 The role of herbivores......Page 51
2.8 Observations across ecosystem types......Page 54
2.9 The human impact......Page 61
2.10 Modeling and predictions......Page 64
2.11 Coastal wetland ecosystems as a component of estuaries......Page 65
2.12 Coastal wetland socioeconomics......Page 67
2.13 Coastal wetlands are essential for our quality of life......Page 71
3 Lessons from the Chapters in this Book......Page 76
3.1 Coastal wetlands as ecosystems......Page 77
3.2 Physical processes......Page 78
3.3 Tidal flats......Page 80
3.4 Marshes and seagrasses......Page 81
3.5 Mangroves......Page 84
3.6 Coastal wetland restoration and management......Page 86
3.7 Coastal wetland sustainability and landscape dynamics......Page 89
References......Page 90
Part I Coastal Wetlands as Ecosystems......Page 96
1 Introduction......Page 98
2 Mangrove and Associated Wetlands......Page 99
3 Sedimentation and the Development of Wetlands......Page 102
4 Sea-Level Controls on Wetland Development......Page 104
5 Sea-Level Change and the Diversification of West Indian Mangroves......Page 107
6 Sea-Level Change and the Evolution of Mangrove Habitats in the IWP......Page 109
7 Impact of Future Climate and Sea-Level Change......Page 113
8 Summary and Concluding Remarks......Page 115
References......Page 116
1 Introduction......Page 122
2 Factors Controlling Sediment Dynamics......Page 124
2.1 The "ramp” model of salt marsh accretion......Page 125
2.2 The "creek" model of salt marsh accretion......Page 126
2.3 Storms and salt marsh erosion......Page 127
3.1 Zonation of vegetation......Page 128
3.2 Ecological development......Page 129
4.1 Northern Europe......Page 130
4.2 Eastern North America......Page 131
4.3 Western North America......Page 136
4.5 Eastern Asia......Page 137
4.6 Australasia......Page 138
4.7 South America......Page 140
5.1 Human impact......Page 141
5.2 Climate and sea-level change......Page 143
6 Summary......Page 144
References......Page 145
1 Introduction......Page 152
2 Geology/Geomorphology......Page 154
3 Oceanography......Page 157
4 Climate......Page 158
5 Structure of Coastal Wetlands......Page 160
6 Vegetation of Polar Coastal Wetlands......Page 166
7 Fauna of Polar Coastal Wetlands......Page 169
7.1 Invertebrate fauna......Page 170
7.2 Vertebrate fauna using coastal wetlands......Page 173
8 Environmental Hazards......Page 180
9 Conclusions and Research Priorities......Page 181
References......Page 182
Part II Physical Processes......Page 190
1 Introduction......Page 192
2 Intertidal Eco-Geomorphological Evolution......Page 196
2.1 Poisson hydrodynamic model......Page 197
2.2 Model of channel network early development......Page 198
2.3 Model of marsh platform evolution......Page 201
3 Results......Page 204
4 Discussion......Page 210
5 Conclusions......Page 211
References......Page 212
1 Introduction......Page 218
2 Proposed Tidal Course Classification......Page 220
3 Geomorphology of Tidal Courses......Page 222
4 Course Networks and Drainage Systems......Page 229
5 Origin of Tidal Courses......Page 231
6 Course Evolution......Page 236
References......Page 239
1 Introduction......Page 244
2 Mid-Latitudes......Page 248
3 Low Latitudes......Page 253
4 High Latitudes......Page 255
5 Summary......Page 258
References......Page 259
1 Introduction......Page 264
2 Physical Characteristics of Mangrove Topography and Vegetation......Page 266
2.1 Classification of mangrove topography......Page 267
2.3 Influence of the vegetation on the hydrodynamics......Page 269
3.1 General equations that control water flow......Page 273
3.2 Timescales of flow system......Page 274
4.1 Hydraulic model......Page 278
4.2 Material dispersion model......Page 284
4.3 Ecosystem model as the holistic system......Page 288
5 Summary......Page 290
References......Page 291
1 Introduction......Page 296
2 Wetting and Drying, and the Dynamics of Very Shallow Flows......Page 298
3 Wind and Wind Waves......Page 305
4 Salt Marsh Vegetation......Page 312
5 Salt Marshes and Tidal Flats Morphodynamics......Page 314
6 Conclusions......Page 318
References......Page 319
Part III Tidal Flats......Page 326
1 Introduction......Page 328
2 Basic Conditions for the Formation of Tidal Flats......Page 330
3.1 Vertical sediment sequences......Page 331
3.2 Sediment and morphology on intertidal mud flats......Page 333
3.3 Sediment and morphology on mixed sand–mud flats......Page 336
4.1 Influences of quantity and composition of sediment supply......Page 338
4.2 Sedimentation during tidal cycles......Page 341
4.3 Long-term accretion–erosion cycles......Page 343
5 Summary......Page 344
References......Page 345
1 Introduction......Page 350
2 The Depositional Habitat......Page 352
2.1 The physical background to life in depositional habitats......Page 354
2.2 The functional difference between mud and sand systems......Page 357
3.1 Patterns of life......Page 361
3.2 Effects of sediment disturbance......Page 364
3.3 Biodiversity impacts......Page 366
3.4 Distribution in space and time......Page 367
3.5 Trophic structure......Page 368
3.6 New functional groups?......Page 369
4 Future Shock: Climate Change and Ecosystem Function......Page 370
References......Page 371
1 Introduction......Page 378
2 Transport Processes on Intertidal Flats......Page 380
3 Microbial Processes......Page 383
3.1 Organic matter sources......Page 384
4.1 Nitrogen fixation......Page 385
4.2 Nitrification and nitrate reduction......Page 387
4.3 Exchange of dissolved nitrogen between the sediment and the water column......Page 390
4.4 Benthic microalgal N assimilation......Page 391
5 Phosphorus Cycle......Page 392
6 Silicon Cycle......Page 395
7 Concluding Remarks......Page 397
References......Page 398
Part IV Marshes and Seagrasses......Page 408
1 Introduction......Page 410
1.1 Primary productivity......Page 411
1.2 Fate of primary productivity – export and burial......Page 413
2 Sediment Biogeochemistry – Modified by Seagrasses......Page 416
2.1 Microscale effects......Page 424
2.2 Nutrient cycling – importance of root uptake......Page 425
3 Human Pressures and Effects on Biogeochemistry......Page 426
4 Future Perspectives and Conclusions......Page 428
References......Page 429
1 Introduction......Page 436
3 Why Salt Marshes Exist?......Page 438
4.2 Marsh edges and coastal change......Page 439
4.4 Channels, creeks, and gullies......Page 440
4.5 Creek networks......Page 441
5.3 Channelized flows......Page 442
5.5 Accretion, compaction, and sea level change......Page 443
6.1 Grain size......Page 445
6.2 Tidal bedding......Page 446
6.3 Lithostratigraphic architecture......Page 449
References......Page 450
1 Introduction......Page 458
2.1 Emergent vegetation......Page 459
2.3 Nekton......Page 461
2.4 Reptiles......Page 462
3.1 Effects of animals on emergent vegetation distribution......Page 463
3.2 Emergent vegetation as animal habitat......Page 464
3.3 Nursery function......Page 465
3.4 Saline marsh food webs......Page 466
References......Page 471
1 Introduction......Page 478
2.1 Exchanges......Page 479
2.2 Internal cycling......Page 482
3.1 Exchanges......Page 488
3.2 Internal cycling......Page 495
3.3 Burial......Page 497
4.1 Exchanges......Page 498
4.2 Internal cycling......Page 501
5 Phosphorus......Page 504
5.1 Exchanges......Page 505
5.2 Internal cycling......Page 508
6 Marshes in Transition and Directions for Future Work......Page 510
Acknowledgments......Page 511
References......Page 512
1 Introduction......Page 526
2 Freshwater Routes in Salt Marshes......Page 527
2.1 Stream flow......Page 528
2.2 Groundwater flow......Page 530
2.3 Rainfall......Page 532
3.1 Nutrient transport......Page 533
3.2 Sediment transport......Page 535
3.4 Pollutants......Page 537
3.5 Salinity changes......Page 538
4 Hydrological Impacts in Salt Marshes......Page 540
5 Techniques for the Study of Marsh Hydrology......Page 541
7 Implications of Freshwater Flows for Salt Marsh Creation......Page 542
8 The Ecohydrological Approach in Salt Marsh Studies......Page 544
References......Page 545
1 Introduction......Page 548
2 Hydrogeomorphic Setting......Page 549
3.1 Plants......Page 552
3.2 Animals......Page 556
4 Primary Production and Nutrient Cycling......Page 560
5 Threats and Future Prospectus......Page 561
References......Page 563
1 Introduction......Page 568
2.1 Carbon inputs......Page 569
2.2 Carbon outputs......Page 571
3 Processes Governing Organic Carbon Metabolism......Page 575
3.1 Anaerobic respiration......Page 576
3.2 Processes regulating methane production, oxidation, and emission......Page 578
4 Nitrogen Biogeochemistry......Page 579
4.1 Nitrogen exchanges......Page 581
4.2 Nitrogen transformations......Page 583
4.3 Nutrient regulation of plant production......Page 584
5 Phosphorus Biogeochemistry......Page 585
7 Biogeochemical Effects of Sea-Level Rise......Page 587
8 Concluding Comments......Page 588
References......Page 589
Part V Mangroves......Page 596
1 Introduction......Page 598
2.1 Terrigenous settings......Page 599
2.3 Inland mangroves......Page 603
3 Tidal Range and Sea-Level Control......Page 605
4 Sedimentation in Mangroves......Page 606
4.1 Excessive sedimentation......Page 608
5 Mangroves as Sea-Level Indicators......Page 610
6 Storms/Tsunamis......Page 615
7 Inundation Changes Affecting Mangroves......Page 616
References......Page 618
1 Driving Forces Determining Main Morphology and Vegetation Types in the Coastal Zone......Page 626
2 Depositional Environment and Substrate Formation for the Development of Mangroves and Salt Marshes......Page 628
3 Influence of Sea Level and Climate Oscillations on Local Geobotanical Features......Page 630
4 Major Factors Leading to the Development of Salt Marshes and Mangroves at the Amazon Coastal Region: An Integrated Analysis......Page 632
5 Influence of Geomorphology and Inundation Regime of Geobotanical Units on their Sediment Biogeochemistry......Page 633
5.1 Regularly inundated wetlands......Page 634
5.2 Rarely inundated wetlands......Page 637
5.3 Waterlogged wetlands......Page 639
5.4 Salt marshes and mangroves: Nutrient sources or sinks?......Page 640
References......Page 641
1 Introduction......Page 648
2.1 Rates of mangrove net primary productivity rival those of other tropical forests......Page 649
2.2 Mangrove forests appear to be architecturally simple, but factors regulating succession and zonation are complex......Page 655
2.4 Tree diversity is low, but faunal and microbial diversity can be high......Page 657
2.5 Arboreal communities are important in food webs, exhibiting predatory, symbiotic, and mutualistic relations......Page 659
2.6 Plant–Microbe–Soil Relations are tightly linked and help conserve scarce nutrients......Page 660
2.7 Crabs are keystone species influencing function and structure in many, but not all, mangrove forests......Page 661
2.8 Algae, not just detritus, are a significant food resource......Page 663
2.9 Mangroves are an important link to fisheries......Page 664
2.10 Mangroves are chemically diverse and a good source of natural products......Page 665
3 Conclusions......Page 666
References......Page 667
1 Introduction......Page 674
2 Ecogeomorphology of Mangroves (Model 1)......Page 681
3 A Multigradient Model (Model 2)......Page 682
4.1 Redox zones in mangrove soils......Page 686
4.2 Transition from reduced to oxidized zones......Page 687
4.3 Hydroperiod effects on transition zones......Page 688
4.4 Lower oxidation zone......Page 689
4.5 Linkages in multigradient and geochemical models......Page 690
5 Soil Biogeochemistry Model (NUMAN, Model 4)......Page 692
6.1 CO2 efflux from mangrove sediments and tidal waters......Page 695
6.2 The balance of N fixation and denitrification......Page 696
6.3 Tidal exchange......Page 704
7 Contrasting Coastal Settings and Biogeochemical Models......Page 705
References......Page 708
Part VI Coastal Wetland Restoration and Management......Page 718
1 Introduction......Page 720
2.1 Europe......Page 722
2.2 Australia......Page 726
2.3 Oceania......Page 728
2.4 Southeast Asia......Page 729
2.5 China and Japan......Page 730
2.6 New Zealand and the Pacific Islands......Page 731
2.7 United States......Page 732
3 Policy Issues Relevant to Mitigation......Page 734
3.1 Costs of restoration......Page 735
3.2 Valuation of ecosystem services......Page 736
Acknowledgments......Page 737
References......Page 738
1 Introduction......Page 748
2 Principles and Techniques of Tidal Marsh Creation......Page 749
2.2 Conceptual design......Page 750
2.3 Hydrology......Page 751
2.4 Soil......Page 752
2.5 Establishing vegetation......Page 753
3.1 Biological productivity and food webs......Page 756
3.2 Biogeochemical cycles......Page 763
References......Page 766
1 Introduction......Page 770
2 Setting Objectives......Page 771
3 Planning for the Future......Page 773
4 Addressing Causes and not Symptoms......Page 777
5.1 Restoring hydrology......Page 778
5.2 Managing weeds......Page 779
5.3 Introduced fauna......Page 782
5.4 Grazing......Page 783
5.5 Pollution......Page 784
6 Conflicting Priorities......Page 787
7 Discussion......Page 788
References......Page 789
1 Introduction......Page 796
2 Location, Drivers, and Constraints to Managed Realignment......Page 798
3.1 Sediments......Page 801
3.2 Creeks......Page 802
3.3 Soils......Page 804
3.4 Nutrient fluxes......Page 805
3.5 Vegetation......Page 806
3.6 Fishes......Page 809
3.7 Spiders......Page 810
3.8 Benthic invertebrates......Page 811
3.9 Birds......Page 812
4 Challenges in Managed Realignment Research......Page 813
References......Page 814
1 Introduction......Page 820
2 General Site Selection for Restoration......Page 821
3 Specific Site Selection for Restoration......Page 822
4 Establishing Success Criteria......Page 825
5 Monitoring and Reporting Success......Page 826
6 Functionality of Restored Mangrove Forests......Page 827
7 Summary......Page 829
References......Page 831
1 Introduction......Page 834
2 Characteristics of Restored TFW......Page 835
3 Success Evaluation of Restored Wetlands......Page 838
4 Ecosystem Attributes Measured at Restored TFW......Page 839
5 Criteria for Successful Restoration of TFW......Page 841
5.2 Geomorphological criteria......Page 846
5.3 Soil criteria......Page 847
5.5 Vegetation criteria......Page 848
5.6 Seed bank criteria......Page 849
6 Case Study: Evaluation of Restored TFW of the Anacostia River, Washington, DC, USA......Page 850
6.1 Characteristics of restored and reference sites......Page 851
6.2 Evaluation of success of restored TFW......Page 852
7.2 Establishment of vegetation......Page 859
7.4 Implications for restoration of TFW......Page 860
References......Page 861
Part VII Coastal Wetland Sustainability and Landscape Dynamics......Page 866
1 Introduction......Page 868
2 Measuring Processes that Affect Wetland Elevation......Page 871
3 Types of Models......Page 872
3.1 Zero-dimensional mineral sediment models......Page 873
3.2 Zero-dimensional organic sediment process models......Page 875
3.3 Geomorphic models......Page 879
4 Future Directions for Model Improvement......Page 880
4.1 Data gaps......Page 881
4.3 Improved linkage between sediment models and vegetation......Page 882
References......Page 883
1 Introduction......Page 888
2.1 Mangrove distribution......Page 889
2.2 Salt marsh distribution......Page 891
2.3 Coexisting mangrove and salt marsh......Page 892
3.1 Tropical northern Australia......Page 895
3.2 Southeastern Australia......Page 896
3.3 Western Atlantic–Caribbean Region......Page 898
4.1 Air photographic evidence of mangrove–salt marsh dynamics in SE Australia......Page 899
4.3 Western Atlantic–Gulf of Mexico......Page 900
5 Stressors Controlling Delimitation of Mangrove......Page 902
5.1 Geomorphic and hydrological controls......Page 903
5.2 Climatic controls......Page 906
5.4 Biotic interactions......Page 907
6 Conclusions......Page 908
References......Page 909
1 Introduction......Page 918
3 Hydraulic Modeling......Page 920
4 Hydrodynamic Modeling......Page 922
4.1 Finite difference solutions......Page 925
4.2 Finite element solutions......Page 926
4.3 Finite volume solutions......Page 927
6 Individual-Based Modeling......Page 928
7 Eco-Geomorphological Modeling......Page 929
8 Ecosystem-Level Modeling......Page 930
10 Conclusions......Page 933
References......Page 935
Subject Index......Page 942
Geographic Index......Page 960
Taxonomic Index......Page 966