Coastal Ecosystems: Environmental importance, current challenges and conservation measures

Contents
Chapter 1: Coastal Ecosystems of India and Their Conservation and Management Policies: A Review
	1 Introduction
	2 The Coastal States, Union Territories and Islands of India
		2.1 Gujarat
		2.2 Maharashtra
		2.3 Goa
		2.4 Karnataka
		2.5 Kerala
		2.6 Andhra Pradesh
		2.7 Tamil Nadu
		2.8 Odisha
		2.9 West Bengal
		2.10 Union Territories of India: Coastal Regions
			2.10.1 Puducherry
			2.10.2 Daman and Diu
			2.10.3 Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI)
			2.10.4 Lakshadweep Islands
	3 India’s Coastal Ecosystems
		3.1 Mangroves
			3.1.1 Sundarbans Mangroves (West Bengal)
			3.1.2 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Goa Mangroves
			3.1.3 Mangroves Pichavaram and Muthupet (Tamil Nadu)
			3.1.4 Andaman and Nicobar Mangrove (ANI)
			3.1.5 Mahanadi and Bhitarkanika (Odisha)
		3.2 Salt Marshes
		3.3 Seagrasses
		3.4 Coral Reefs
		3.5 Lagoons
	4 India’s Coastal Policies
		4.1 Global Conventions and Coastline Protection Treaties
			4.1.1 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
			4.1.2 The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
			4.1.3 The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Wildlife (CITES)
			4.1.4 Ramsar Convention on International Important Wetlands
			4.1.5 Biosphere Reserves
			4.1.6 Biodiversity Act, 2002
			4.1.7 Indian Coastal Zone Regulations
	5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2: Sources and Distribution of Fecal Coliforms in the Coastal Environment: A Case Study from Chilika Lagoon, Odisha, India
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Microbial Indicators of Bacteriological Quality of Water
		1.2 Monitoring and Assessment of FC
	2 Materials and Methods
		2.1 Study Area
		2.2 Water Sampling
		2.3 Detection of FC Bacteria
		2.4 Molecular Identification and Phylogenetic Analysis
		2.5 Antibiotic Susceptibility Profiling and MAR Index
		2.6 Statistical Analysis
		2.7 Nucleotide Sequence Accession Numbers
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Distribution of FC Bacteria
		3.2 Spatiotemporal Distribution of FC Bacteria
		3.3 Inter-annual Variation in FC Bacteria
		3.4 Molecular Identification and Phylogenetic Analysis
		3.5 Antibiotic Susceptibility Profile and MAR Index
	4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3: Seagrass Ecosystems of India as Bioindicators of Trace Elements
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Distribution and Ecology of Indian Seagrasses
	2 Trace Element in Coastal Water, Sediment, and Seagrasses
		2.1 Trace Element in the Water Column above Seagrass Meadows
		2.2 Trace Metals in the Sediment of Seagrass Meadows
		2.3 Role of Sediment Characteristics in Making Trace Elements Bioavailable
		2.4 Trace Element Accumulation in Seagrasses
	3 Effects of Trace Elements on Seagrass Physiology
	4 Future Scenarios and Metal Toxicity on Seagrass
	5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 4: Phosphorus Availability and Speciation in the Intertidal Sediments of Sundarbans Mangrove Ecosystem of India and Bangladesh
	1 Introduction
	2 Study Area
	3 Material and Methods
		3.1 Sample Collection
		3.2 Chemicals and Solutions
		3.3 Total Sedimentary Phosphorus (TSP)
		3.4 Sequential Extraction Procedure
		3.5 Reactive Fe Analyses
		3.6 Porewater Solute Analyses
	4 Results
		4.1 Spatial Variability of Phosphorus Fractions
		4.2 Sediment Characteristics
		4.3 Porewater Solutes
	5 Discussion
		5.1 Sedimentary Phosphorus Species
			5.1.1 Detrital P (Det-P) and Exchangeable P (Sorb-P)
			5.1.2 Authigenic CFA
			5.1.3 Organic P
			5.1.4 DB-Extractable P (Fe-P)
		5.2 Bioavailable Phosphorus
	6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 5: Phytoplankton Ecology in Indian Coastal Lagoons: A Review
	1 Introduction
	2 Coastal Lagoons of India
	3 Phytoplankton Diversity and Seasonal Dynamics in Indian Lagoons
		3.1 East Coast of India
		3.2 West Coast of India
	4 Factors Controlling Phytoplankton Distribution and Dynamics in Indian Lagoons
		4.1 Physical Factors
			4.1.1 Water Temperature
			4.1.2 Photic Depth and Turbidity
			4.1.3 Water Current
		4.2 Chemical Factor
			4.2.1 Nutrients
			4.2.2 Salinity
			4.2.3 pH
			4.2.4 Dissolved Oxygen
			4.2.5 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
		4.3 Geological Factor
		4.4 Biological Factor
		4.5 Meteorological Factor
			4.5.1 Aerosol
		4.6 Anthropogenic Factor
	5 Conclusion and Future Research Directions
	References
Chapter 6: Growing Menace of Microplastics in and Around the Coastal Ecosystem
	1 Introduction
	2 Few Sources of Microplastics
	3 Menace Across the Globe
		3.1 Effects on Turtles and Dolphins
		3.2 Effects on Coral Reefs
		3.3 Effects on Crabs, Fishes
		3.4 Effects on Seabirds and Oysters
		3.5 Effects on Benthic Organisms
	4 Challenges and Recommendations
	5 Indian Context
	6 Suggestions
	7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7: Variability of Nutrients and Their Stoichiometry in Chilika Lagoon, India
	1 Introduction
	2 Material and Methods
		2.1 Study Area
	3 Methodology
	4 Results and Discussion
		4.1 Variability of Physicochemical Parameters
			4.1.1 Climatic Condition and Bathymetry
			4.1.2 Factors Responsible for SD Variability
			4.1.3 pH, DO, and Salinity Variability Factors
		4.2 Nutrient Dynamics
			4.2.1 Variability of Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen Species
			4.2.2 Variability of Dissolved Inorganic Phosphate
			4.2.3 Variability of Silicate
		4.3 Spatiotemporal Variability in Trophic Index
		4.4 Nutrient Stoichiometry and Influencing Factors
			4.4.1 N/P
			4.4.2 Si/P
			4.4.3 N/Si
	5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: A Systematic Review on the Impact of Urbanization and Industrialization on Indian Coastal Mangrove Ecosystem
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Global Mangrove Cover
		1.2 Indian Coastal Mangrove Systems
		1.3 Threat to Mangrove Ecosystems
			1.3.1 Natural Influences
			1.3.2 Anthropogenic Influences
				Agricultural Activities
				Industrial Development
				Heavy Metals
				Nutrients
				Aquaculture
				Oil Spills
				Sand Mining
				Resource Exploitation
				Other Pollutants
	2 Importance of Mangroves in Controlling Pollution
	3 Current and Future Threats
		3.1 Global Warming
		3.2 Sea-Level Rise
		3.3 Weather Events
	4 Management: Restoration and Resilience
		4.1 Management Activities on Regional Scale
	5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9: Zooplankton Diversity and Their Spatiotemporal Distribution: An Ecological Assessment from a Brackish Coastal Lagoon, Chilika, Odisha
	1 Background
	2 Materials and Methods
		2.1 Study Area
		2.2 Sampling and Analysis
			2.2.1 Zooplankton
			2.2.2 Physicochemical Parameters and Phytoplankton Enumeration
		2.3 Statistical Analysis
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Zooplankton Diversity
		3.2 Holoplankton
			3.2.1 Ciliophora
			3.2.2 Foraminifera
			3.2.3 Tubulinea
			3.2.4 Rotifera
			3.2.5 Hydrozoa
			3.2.6 Ctenophora
			3.2.7 Nematoda
			3.2.8 Annelida
			3.2.9 Gastropoda
			3.2.10 Bivalvia
			3.2.11 Cladocera
			3.2.12 Copepoda
			3.2.13 Ostracoda
			3.2.14 Malacostraca
			3.2.15 Chaetognatha
			3.2.16 Chordata
		3.3 Meroplankton
		3.4 Microzooplankton Abundances and Community Composition
		3.5 Zooplankton Abundances and Community Composition
		3.6 Hydrography and Phytoplankton
		3.7 Environmental Drivers of Microzooplankton and Zooplankton Communities
	4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10: Metal Transport and Its Impact on Coastal Ecosystem
	1 Introduction
	2 Coastal Ecosystem: An Overview
		2.1 Mangroves
		2.2 Coral Reefs
		2.3 Seagrass Meadows
		2.4 Lagoon
	3 Major Sources of Heavy Metals
	4 Factors Affecting the Mobility of Metals
	5 Distribution of Heavy Metals
	6 Health Implications
		6.1 On Flora
		6.2 On Nekton
		6.3 On Benthos
		6.4 On Planktons
		6.5 On Humans
	7 Mitigation Strategies
		7.1 Proper Treatment at Source
		7.2 Chemical-Biological Remediation
		7.3 Bioremediation
		7.4 Public Awareness and Legislations
	8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: A Holistic Study on Impact of Anthropogenic Activities over the Mangrove Ecosystem and Their Conservation Strategies
	1 Introduction
		1.1 A Brief Outlay of Mangrove Ecosystem (ME)
	2 Benefits of Mangrove Ecosystem
		2.1 Provisioning Services
		2.2 Ecological Services
		2.3 Supporting Services
	3 Anthropogenic Threats for Mangrove Ecosystem
		3.1 Contribution of Aquaculture in Mangrove Loss
		3.2 Enhancement of Rice Cultivation
		3.3 Increase of Oil Palm Plantation
		3.4 Elevated Trends of Urban Sprawling and Industrialization
		3.5 Extensive Agriculture
	4 Current Global Status of Mangrove
	5 Indian Status
		5.1 Mangrove Status in Southern Parts of India
	6 Conservation and Management Strategies
		6.1 Global Approaches to Mangrove Conservation
		6.2 Inclusion of Human Needs
	7 The Role of Traditional Knowledge and GIS Is of Great Use in the Management of the Mangrove Ecosystem
	8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12: Assessment of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Accumulation in Crabs of Chilika Lagoon, India
	1 Introduction
	2 Materials and Methods
		2.1 Study Area
		2.2 Sampling and Analysis
		2.3 Potential Human Health Risk (Olayinka et al. 2019)
		2.4 Bioaccumulation Factors
	3 Results and Discussion
	4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 13: Coastal Ecosystem Services of Gujarat, India: Current Challenges and Conservation Needs
	1 Introduction
	2 Coral Reefs
		2.1 Corals
		2.2 Restoration of Corals
		2.3 Seagrass
	3 Seaweeds
	4 Salt Marsh Ecosystem
		4.1 Mangroves
			4.1.1 Restoration
		4.2 Beaches
	5 Coastal Dunes
	6 Salt Marsh Ecosystems
		6.1 Mudflats Fishery
		6.2 Paleo-Mudflats
		6.3 Estuarine Fishery
	7 Ranns the Saline Deserts
	References
Chapter 14: Macrophyte Diversity and Distribution in Brackish Coastal Lagoons: A Field Survey from Chilika, Odisha
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Diversity and Distribution of Macrophytes
		1.2 Ecological Roles of Macrophytes
		1.3 Macrophyte Assessment from the Chilika Lagoon
	2 Methodology
		2.1 Site Description
		2.2 Inventorization of Macrophytes
		2.3 Macroalgae Associated with Macrophytes
		2.4 Biomass and Chlorophyll Estimation
		2.5 Physicochemical Parameters Analysis
		2.6 Mapping of Seagrasses
		2.7 Assessment of Major Salt Marsh Grasses from Nalabana
		2.8 Statistical Analysis
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Diversity and Distribution of Aquatic Macrophytes
			3.1.1 Spatial Distribution of Macrophytes
			3.1.2 Temporal Distribution of Macrophytes
		3.2 Distribution of Macroalgae
		3.3 Biomass Production
			3.3.1 Biomass Production in the Southern Sector
			3.3.2 Biomass Production in the Central Sector
			3.3.3 Biomass Production in the Northern Sector
			3.3.4 Biomass Production in Major Salt Marshes of Nalabana
		3.4 Chlorophyll Content in Aquatic Macrophytes and Salt Marsh
		3.5 Spatial Mapping of Seagrasses
	4 Management of Macrophytes
	5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15: Spatial Identification of Vulnerable Coastal Ecosystems for Emerging Pollutants
	1 Introduction
	2 Understanding  the Coastal Ecosystem as a Prime Marine Resource
		2.1 Shoreline Stabilization
		2.2 Biodiversity
		2.3 Water Quality
		2.4 Food Production
		2.5 Recreation and Tourism
	3 Pollution in Coastal Ecosystem
	4 Emerging Pollutants
		4.1 Types of Emerging Pollutants
			4.1.1 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
			4.1.2 Diclofenac
			4.1.3 Triclosan
			4.1.4 Carbamazepine
			4.1.5 Microplastics
			4.1.6 Caffeine
		4.2 Ecotoxicity of Emerging Pollutants
		4.3 Impact of Emerging Pollutants on Human
		4.4 Pathway of Emerging Pollutant Affecting Environment and Human Health
		4.5 Global Pollution Trend
	5 Spatial Identification of Vulnerable Areas for Emerging Pollutants
		5.1 Distribution of Emerging pollutant Among the States Along the Indian Coastline
		5.2 Identification and Illustration of Vulnerable States for Emerging Pollutants
	6 Conclusion
	References
Index