Clinical Reasoning and Evidence-Based Practice: Deliberate Decision-Making by Nurses

Foreword 1
Foreword 2
Preface
Introduction
	Structure and Use of the Book
Contents
Authors and Contributors
About the Authors
Contributors 
Part I: Clinical Reasoning
	1: Background Knowledge in Clinical Reasoning
		1.1	 What Is Clinical Reasoning?
		1.2	 How to Use Clinical Reasoning?
		1.3	 Trusting Relationship
		1.4	 The ICF as a Thought Model in Clinical Reasoning
			1.4.1	 What Is the ICF Diagram? What Do the ICF Terms Mean?
			1.4.2	 How Does the ICF Support Structuring and Reasoning?
				1.4.2.1	 Diagnostic and Etiological Reasoning
				1.4.2.2	 Prognostic Reasoning
				1.4.2.3	 Therapeutic Reasoning
		1.5	 Analysing and Answering the Four Basic Questions of Clinical Reasoning
			1.5.1	 What Are the Standard Questions in Diagnostic Reasoning?
			1.5.2	 What Are the Standard Questions in Etiological Reasoning?
			1.5.3	 What Are the Standard Questions in Prognostic Reasoning?
			1.5.4	 What Are the Standard Questions in Therapeutic Reasoning?
			1.5.5	 What Is the Course of the Clinical Reasoning Process?
		1.6	 The ICN Definition of Nursing as a Framework for Nursing Decisions
			1.6.1	 What Is Meant by Autonomous Action and What by Collaborative (or Participatory) Action?
			1.6.2	 How Does This Division of the Nursing Professional Domain into Autonomous and Collaborative Action Affect Clinical Reasoning?
		1.7	 Diversity-Sensitive Reasoning
			1.7.1	 What Areas of Diversity Support Diversity-Sensitive Reasoning?
			1.7.2	 Why Is Diversity-Sensitive Reasoning Important?
			1.7.3	 How Does Diversity-Sensitive Reasoning Fit with the ICF?
		1.8	 Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
			1.8.1	 How Can Evidence-Based Practice Improve Clinical Reasoning and Skill Implementation?
			1.8.2	 What Is Evidence-Based Practice and What Components Does It Consist Of?
			1.8.3	 What Is the Methods of Evidence-Based Practice? What Kind of Knowledge Does EBP Lead to?
		1.9	 The Use of Hypotheses in Clinical Reasoning
			1.9.1	 What Is Meant by ‘Hypothesis Formulation’ and by ‘Hypothesis Testing’?
			1.9.2	 How Can I Formulate Hypotheses and Test Criteria About Health Problems?
			1.9.3	 How Can Hypotheses About Etiology Be Tested?
			1.9.4	 How Can Goals of Nursing Care Be Assessed?
			1.9.5	 What Should the Hypotheses Be About When Reasoning About Interventions?
		1.10	 The Thought Structure of Clinical Reasoning
			1.10.1	 How Do We Think? The Dual Processing Model and Pitfalls in Decision-Making
			1.10.2	 How Do We Think? Biases as Threats to Reasoning
				1.10.2.1	 What Are Biases and How Do They Affect Reasoning?
			1.10.3	 Intuition and Analysis
				1.10.3.1	 What Is the Difference Between Intuition and Analysis?
			1.10.4	 Background Knowledge and Foreground Knowledge
				1.10.4.1	 What Is Background Knowledge?
				1.10.4.2	 What Is Foreground Knowledge?
		References
	Glossary
	2: Diagnostic Decision: What Is the Matter with the Patient?
		2.1	 What Is a Diagnosis?
		2.2	 What Is Diagnostic Reasoning?
		2.3	 How Are the Health Problem, Clues and Symptoms Incorporated into the Diagnosis?
		2.4	 When Should I Use Diagnostic Reasoning?
		2.5	 How Do I Get a Diagnosis?
		2.6	 How Do I Find Out a Patient’s Symptoms?
		2.7	 How Can I Assess the Severity and Importance of the Symptoms?
		2.8	 How Do I Get from Symptoms to an Overview of Possible Health Problems?
		2.9	 How Do I Get Information About the Characteristic Symptoms of the Diagnosis?
		2.10	 How Can I Test the Defining Characteristics?
		2.11	 How Do I Process All This Information into a Diagnosis?
		2.12	 What About Diagnoses in the Area of Prevention?
		Glossary
		Cases and Learning Tasks
			Learning Task 1: Sanne
			Process Worksheet for the Sanne Case
			Process Worksheet Diagnostic Reasoning
				Characteristics of Limitation of Self-Management/Loss of Control (on the Basis of ICF)
			Conclusion
			Learning Task 2: Mr Bakker
		References
	3: Etiological Decision: What May Have Caused the Problem?
		3.1	 What Is Etiology? What Are Etiological and Related Factors?
		3.2	 What Is Etiological Reasoning?
		3.3	 How Are Etiological Factors Incorporated into the Diagnosis?
		3.4	 How Should I Reason Etiologically in a High-Risk Diagnosis?
		3.5	 How Do I Find the Etiological Factors?
		3.6	 How Can I Estimate the Importance of the Etiological Factors?
		3.7	 How Can I Test Whether the Factors Found Do Indeed Cause or Perpetuate the Problem?
		Cases and Learning Tasks
			Learning Task 3: Simone Case
			Process Worksheet for the Simone case
			Process Worksheet Diagnostic Reasoning
			Conclusion
			Process Worksheet Etiological Reasoning
			Conclusion
			Learning Task 4: Laila Case
		References
	Glossary
	4: Prognostic Decision: What Can We Achieve?
		4.1	 What Is a Prognosis? What Is Prognostic Reasoning?
		4.2	 Why Is a Prognosis Important?
		4.3	 Should Prognosis Be Reasoned About First and Then Therapy, or Vice Versa?
		4.4	 What Is the Difference Between Risk Factors, Etiological Factors and Prognostic Factors?
		4.5	 How Do I Know What Factors Influence the Prognosis?
		4.6	 What Should I Do Once I Have Identified the Prognostic Factors?
		4.7	 Which Types of Prognosis Are Possible?
		4.8	 How Can I Formulate Patient Goals from a Prognosis?
		4.9	 How Do I Formulate a Patient Goal?
		4.10	 How Can I Use the Goals in Evaluation?
		Cases and Learning Tasks
			Learning Task 5: Mrs Kimanski Case
			Process Worksheet for the Mrs Kimanski Case
			Process Worksheet Diagnostic Reasoning
			Conclusion
			Process Worksheet Etiological Reasoning
			Conclusion
			Process Worksheet Prognostic Reasoning
			Conclusion
			Learning Task 6: Mr Ewijk Case
		References
	Glossary
	5: Therapeutic Decision: What Can We Do About the Problem?
		5.1	 What Is the Difference Between a Therapy and an Intervention?
		5.2	 Is Therapy Also Performed by Nurses?
		5.3	 What Is Therapeutic Reasoning?
		5.4	 How Do I Know What Interventions There Are?
		5.5	 How Do I Know What Effects I Can Expect from an Intervention? And How Do I know If There Is Strong Evidence for These Effects?
		5.6	 How Do I Know If the Evidence Applies to My Patient?
		5.7	 What Is Meant by the Point of Intervention?
		5.8	 How Do I Find Out the Mechanism of Change of the Intervention?
		5.9	 How Can I Assess the Feasibility of the Intervention?
		5.10	 How Do I Choose from Several Alternative Interventions?
		5.11	 How Do I Get from Choosing the Intervention to Implementing It?
		Cases and Learning Tasks
			Learning Task 7: Sven Case
			Process Worksheet for the Sven Case
			Process Worksheet Diagnostic Reasoning
			Conclusion
			Process Worksheet Etiological Reasoning
			Conclusion
			Process Worksheet Prognostic Reasoning
			Conclusion
			Process Worksheet Therapeutic Reasoning
			Learning Task 8: Mr Bachoni Case
		References
	Glossary
Part II: Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
	6: Clinical Reasoning and Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
		6.1	 What Is Evidence-Based Practice? How Does Evidence-Based Practice Help Improve My Clinical Reasoning?
		6.2	 What Is the Method of Evidence-Based Practice?
		6.3	 How Can I Translate a Clinical Problem into an Answerable Question?
		6.4	 How Do I Know What the Best Evidence Is?
		6.5	 Where Do I Find the Evidence?
		6.6	 How Can I Weigh the Found Evidence on Methodological Quality and Applicability in My Own Practice?
		References
	Glossary
	7: What May Be the Matter with the Patient: How to Critically Appraise Articles on Diagnostic Tests?
		7.1	 What Is a Diagnostic Test?
		7.2	 How Can I Assess the Validity of a Diagnostic Measuring Instrument?
		7.3	 What Is Meant by ‘Sequential’ or ‘Random Sample’? Why Is It So Important?
		7.4	 What Is a Valid Reference Test?
		7.5	 Why Do the Evaluators of the Test Have to Be Blinded?
		7.6	 In What Situation Is the Requirement Dropped That Both Tests Be Performed? In That Case, How Can the Comparison Be Done Properly?
		7.7	 What Is ‘Selective Dropout’? What Should I Look for in Assessing Dropout?
		7.8	 How Can I Assess the Value of the Measuring Instrument Under Study?
		7.9	 How Can I Assess Whether I Can Apply the Researched Diagnostic Instrument to My Patients?
		References
	Glossary
	8: What May Be the Cause: How to Critically Evaluate Articles on Etiological Factors?
		8.1	 In What Kind of Sources Can I Find the Best Evidence About Etiological Factors?
		8.2	 What Does a Cohort Study of Etiological Factors Involve?
		8.3	 What Does a Case-Control Study of Etiologic Factors Involve?
		8.4	 How Can I Determine the Quality of the Cohort Study?
		8.5	 How Do I Know If the Two Groups Are Comparable?
		8.6	 What Is Selection Bias? How Can I Estimate the Risk of Bias in Research Results?
		8.7	 What Is Information Bias? How Can I Estimate the Risk of Research Results Being Biased by Information Bias?
		8.8	 How Do I Know If the Period of Time Until Follow-Up Is Long Enough?
		8.9	 Why Does the Intermediate Dropout of Participants Threaten the Validity of the Study? How Can I Determine Whether Too Many Participants Have Dropped Out?
		8.10	 What Is ‘Adjustment for Significant Risk Factors’? How Can I Check Whether These Factors Have Been Controlled for?
		8.11	 Do the Same Requirements Apply to Determining the Validity of a Case-Control Study?
		8.12	 What Is Meant by New Cases? Why Is It Important That the Cases Are New?
		8.13	 What Is Meant by Misclassification? How Can I Find Out If There Is a High Risk of Misclassification?
		8.14	 How Can I Assess the Magnitude of the Effect of the Etiological Factor?
		8.15	 How Can I Determine If the Point Estimate Is Really the Actual Effect?
		8.16	 What Does the Confidence Interval Say About Statistical Significance?
		8.17	 How Do I Know If I Can Use the Results for My Patients?
		8.18	 What Is the Difference Between Association and Causation?
		References
	Glossary
	9: What Can We Achieve: How to Critically Review Articles on Prognostic Research?
		9.1	 What Are Prognostic Factors? Why Are They Important?
		9.2	 In What Sources Can I Find the Best Evidence for Prognostic Factors?
		9.3	 How Can I Determine the Quality of a Cohort Study of Prognostic Factors?
		9.4	 What Is Important in the Description of the Patient Group?
		9.5	 How Can I Verify That the Follow-Up Measurement Was Conducted with a Sufficient Number of Study Participants?
		9.6	 How Do I Know If the Period to Follow-Up Is Long Enough to Measure the Effect of the Studied Factor on the Course and Outcome of the Studied Health Condition?
		9.7	 How Can I Assess the Quality of the Measurements of the Outcomes?
		9.8	 How Can I Assess the Quality of the Measurements of the Potential Prognostic Factor?
		9.9	 What Is the Value of Initial Research on a Prognostic Factor? How Does It Differ from Later Research?
		9.10	 How Can I Determine the Importance of the Study Results in Relation to the Prognostic Factor for the Patients?
		9.11	 How Can I Find Out If the Study Results Can be Used for My Own Patients?
		References
	Glossary
	10: What Can We Do About the Problem: How to Critically Appraise Articles on Interventions?
		10.1	 Randomised Controlled Trial and Controlled Clinical Trial
			10.1.1 What Is a Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT)?
			10.1.2 How Can I Critically Evaluate the Quality of a Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT)? How Can I Determine the Applicability of the Intervention to Patients in My Practice?
			10.1.3 What Is Meant by Randomisation?
			10.1.4 Why Is Randomisation Important?
			10.1.5 What About a Controlled Clinical Trial?
			10.1.6 Why Is the Comparability of the Participant Groups Important?
			10.1.7 What Is Meant By Blinding?
			10.1.8 Why Is Treatment Comparability Important?
			10.1.9 How Is the Quality of the RCT Affected by Sample Size and Completeness of Follow-Up?
			10.1.10 What Is Meant By Validity? How Can the Validity of an RCT Be Assessed?
			10.1.11 How Can the Results of an RCT Be Interpreted?
			10.1.12 What Is Meant by Significance?
			10.1.13 What Does the p-Value Say About Statistical Significance?
			10.1.14 What Does the Confidence Interval Say About Statistical Significance?
			10.1.15 What Role Do Adverse Effects Play in Assessing an Intervention?
			10.1.16 How Can It Be Assessed Whether the Experimental Intervention Can Be Generalised To, and Applied In, My Patient Care?
		10.2	 Synthesis: What Is the Value of Systematic Reviews?
			10.2.1 What Is a Systematic Review?
			10.2.2 How Can the Value of a Systematic Review Be Determined?
			10.2.3 How Can the Research Question of the SR Be Appraised?
			10.2.4 What Requirements Must the Systematic Search for Relevant Studies Meet in a Systematic Review?
			10.2.5 What Are the Requirements for the Selection Procedure of the Articles for the SR?
			10.2.6 How to Assess Whether a Systematic Review Is Based on Good or Weak RCTs?
			10.2.7 What Is Data Extraction? What Are the Requirements for Reporting on the Data Extraction Process in a Systematic Review?
			10.2.8 In What Way Should the Original Studies Be Described in the SR?
			10.2.9 What Is Heterogeneity? How Can It Be Verified That Heterogeneity Has Been Correctly Estimated and Correctly Incorporated into an SR?
			10.2.10 How Should the Results of an SR Be Reported?
			10.2.11 How to Assess the Validity of an SR?
			10.2.12 How Can the Results of an SR Be Interpreted? How to Assess the Applicability of the Intervention in Patient Care?
		10.3	 Evidence-Based Guidelines
			10.3.1	 What Is a Guideline?
			10.3.2 What Value Do Guidelines Have for Clinical Reasoning?
			10.3.3 How Can the Quality of a Guideline Be Critically Assessed?
		References
	Glossary
	11: How to Better Understand Patients’ Experience: Understanding Psychosocial Processes in Healthcare Through Qualitative Research
		11.1	 What Is Qualitative Research? What Is the Difference Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research?
		11.2	 What Is the Most Important Method in Qualitative Research?
		11.3	 What Are the Ways of Collecting Data in Qualitative Research?
		11.4	 How Are Data Analysed in Qualitative Research?
		11.5	 What Are the Pitfalls of Conducting Qualitative Research?
		11.6	 What Are Quality Criteria for Qualitative Research?
			11.6.1	 Truth Value or Credibility
			11.6.2	 Applicability or Transferability
			11.6.3	 Repeatability
			11.6.4	 Neutrality or Confirmability
		11.7	 How Does Qualitative Research Contribute to Clinical Reasoning?
		References
	Glossary
Part III: Second Layer with Extras
	12: In-Depth Texts
		12.1	 Examples of the Four Types of Questions
		12.2	 Making a Deliberate Decision
		12.3	 Conditions for Critical Thinking by the Nurse
			12.3.1	 Use Good Information
			12.3.2	 Assess and Weigh Information Properly
			12.3.3	 Thorough Professional Knowledge
		12.4	 Examples of Standard Questions That Are Asked in Order to Eventually Answer the Basic Question
		12.5	 Example of Body Structures and Their Body Functions (ICF)
		12.6	 Deepening Knowledge of Environmental Factors
		12.7	 Explanation of the Standard Questions for a Diagnostic Decision
		12.8	 Explanation of the Standard Questions for an Etiological Decision
		12.9	 Explanation of the Standard Questions for a Prognostic Decision
		12.10	 Explanation of the Standard Questions for a Therapeutic Decision
		12.11	 Forms of Collaboration Between Professionals: Multiprofessional, Multidisciplinary, Interdisciplinary or Interprofessional
		12.12	 Further Elaboration of the Nursing Professional Domain
		12.13	 Short Case with Autonomous and Participative Action
			12.13.1 Autonomous Reasoning and Acting
			12.13.2 Participatory Reasoning and Action
		12.14	 Explanation of the Seven Diversity Aspects
		12.15	 Example of Blood Pressure Measurement by Isabella: First Part
		12.16	 Blood Pressure Measurement by Isabella: Second Part
			12.16.1 Health Risk: The Whole Is More Than the Sum of the Parts
		12.17	 Considering Hypothetical Diagnoses
		12.18	 Example of Hypothesis Formation and Test Criteria of Etiology
		12.19	 Example of Hypothesis Formation and Test Criteria for Patient Goals
		12.20	 Example of Hypothesis Formation and Test Criteria for Interventions
		12.21	 Risk of Death for Smokers and Ex-Smokers Compared with People Who Never Smoked
		12.22	 Examples of the Use of Relevant and Irrelevant Information
			12.22.1 Use of Irrelevant Information
			12.22.2 Use of Relevant Information
			12.22.3 Analysis
		12.23	 Test Your Use of the Thinking Systems Through the Cognitive Response Test
			12.23.1 Questions
		12.24	 Example of Mrs. Brown Elaborated in the Dual Processing Model
			12.24.1 Patient Situation
			12.24.2 Question
		12.25	 More Examples of Biases
		12.26	 Brief Overview of the Differences Between Intuition and Analysis
		12.27	 Examples of When a More Intuitive Approach Is Preferred
		12.28	 Standards for BMI and Abdominal Size
			12.28.1 BMI
			12.28.2 Waist Circumference: High Risk of Obesity-Related Conditions
		12.29	 In-Depth Text About Monitoring: Diagnosis - Monitoring - Ongoing Diagnostic Reasoning
		12.30	 Example of How Knowledge Leads to Further Questions
		12.31	 Brief Description of the Area Within Which Nurses Make Autonomous Diagnosis and Practice Participatory Diagnostic Reasoning
		12.32	 Deepening on Sufficient and Necessary Causes
		12.33	 Example of a Nutritional Instrument: The Short Nutritional Assessment Questionnaire (SNAQ)
		12.34	 Explanation of the Six Types of Results
		12.35	 Isabella’s Elaboration on Smoking Cessation Prognosis and Goals by Mrs. Jacobi
		12.36	 Autonomous and Participatory Interventions
			12.36.1 Autonomous Nursing Interventions
			12.36.2 Participatory Interventions, Carried Out By the Nurse
		12.37	 Elaboration of Isabella’s Search for Exercise Interventions
			12.37.1 Intervention
			12.37.2 Impact
			12.37.3 The Evidence Applied to Isabella’s Patient
			12.37.4 Focus
			12.37.5 Mechanism of Change
			12.37.6 Feasibility of the Intervention
			12.37.7 Patient Acceptability
		12.38	 Examples of Mechanisms of Change
			12.38.1 Aspirin as a Painkiller
			12.38.2 Motivational Interviewing
		12.39	 Explanation of Three Questions About the Applicability of Specific Scientific Knowledge
			12.39.1 Is the New Information Emerging from These Scientific Articles Likely to be True?
			12.39.2 What Does This Information Tell About Patient Care?
			12.39.3 Can This Information be Used for One’s Patient?
		12.40	 More Examples of Determinants
		12.41	 More Examples of Questions Using the PICO System
		12.42	 The Use of PICO for Questions on Diagnosis, Etiology, or Prognosis
			12.42.1	 Diagnostic Question
			12.42.2 Etiological Question
			12.42.3 Prognostic Question
		12.43	 Alternatives for the Reference Test, If It Cannot Be Carried Out on All Patients
		12.44	 Sensitivity/Specificity Exercise
			12.44.1 Test Questions Sensitivity/Specificity
			12.44.2 What Do the Sensitivity and Specificity Mean in This Case? Choose an Answer from A, B, C, or D
		12.45	 Exercise with Positive and Negative Predictive Values
		12.46	 Schematic Overview of the Cohort Study of Li et al.
		12.47	 Schematic Overview Case-Control Study
		12.48	 All Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria from Minneboo et al.
		12.49	 Explanation of the Concept ‘Allocation Concealment’
		12.50	 Example of a Flow Diagram
		12.51	 Explanation of the Exact Meaning of RR = 1.43 (1.14–1.78) from Minneboo et al.
		12.52	 Elaboration of Found Relative Risk in Terms of Percentages
		12.53	 Explanation of Thresholds and Significance Level
			12.53.1 Some Possible Situations
			12.53.2 After Statistical Testing, The Following Situations Can Arise
		12.54	 Example of the Value of an SR Over Several RCTs
		12.55	 Example of Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria in an SR by Machado et al.
		12.56	 Example of Response Bias
		12.57	 Overview of Factors Weakening and Strengthening the Strength of Evidence of a Systematic Review
			12.57.1 Factors Weakening the Strength of Evidence
			12.57.2 Factors Strengthening the Strength of Evidence
		12.58	 More Examples of Qualitative Research Questions
		12.59	 Different Ways of Participating and Observing in Qualitative Research
		12.60	 Different Forms of Triangulation
		12.61	 More Detailed Explanation of the Measures to Enhance Credibility
		12.62	 Checklists
			12.62.1 Checklist 1 Checklist for Assessing Studies on Diagnostic Accuracy
				12.62.1.1	 Validity
				12.62.1.2	 Importance
				12.62.1.3	 Sensitivity
				12.62.1.4	 Specificity
				12.62.1.5	 PV+
				12.62.1.6	 PV−
				12.62.1.7	 Applicability
		12.63	 Checklist 2
			12.63.1 Checklist for Assessment of Cohort Studies into Etiological Factors
				12.63.1.1	 Validity
				12.63.1.2	 Importance
				12.63.1.3	 Applicability
		12.64	 Checklist 3
			12.64.1 Checklist for Assessment of Case-Control Studies
				12.64.1.1	 Validity
				12.64.1.2	 Importance
				12.64.1.3	 Applicability
		12.65	 Checklist 4
			12.65.1 Checklist for Assessment of Prognostic Research
				12.65.1.1	 Validity
				12.65.1.2	 Importance
				12.65.1.3	 Applicability
		12.66	 Checklist 5
			12.66.1 Checklist for Assessment of RCTs
				12.66.1.1	 Randomisation
				12.66.1.2	 Blinding
				12.66.1.3	 Comparability of Participants
				12.66.1.4	 Sample Size and Completeness of Follow-Up Measurements
				12.66.1.5	 Comparability of Treatment
				12.66.1.6	 Validity
				12.66.1.7	 Results
				12.66.1.8	 Significance
				12.66.1.9	 Applicability
		12.67	 Checklist 6
			12.67.1 Checklist Generalisability, Usability and Appropriateness of the Experimental Intervention
		12.68	 Checklist 7
			12.68.1 Checklist for Assessment of a Systematic Review of RCTs
				12.68.1.1	 Research Question of the SR
				12.68.1.2	 Systematic Search for Relevant Studies
				12.68.1.3	 Selection of the Relevant Articles from the Search Output
				12.68.1.4	 Quality Assessment of the Selected Original Studies
				12.68.1.5	 Data Extraction from the Original Studies
				12.68.1.6	 Description of the Individual Studies
				12.68.1.7	 Dealing with Heterogeneity
				12.68.1.8	 Presentation of the Results
				12.68.1.9	 Validity
				12.68.1.10	 Results
				12.68.1.11	 Significance
				12.68.1.12	 Applicability
		12.69	 Checklist 8
			12.69.1 Checklist for Assessment of Qualitative Research
				12.69.1.1	 Research Question
				12.69.1.2	 Justification of Methodology
				12.69.1.3	 Truth Value
				12.69.1.4	 Applicability (1)
				12.69.1.5	 Validity
				12.69.1.6	 Discussion and Conclusions
				12.69.1.7	 Applicability (2)
		12.70	 Checklist 9
			12.70.1 Checklist of Frequently Used Measures of Effect
				12.70.1.1	 Frequently Used Measures of Effect: How Should Each of These Measures be Interpreted?
					Absolute Risk (AR)
				12.70.1.2	 Absolute Risk Reduction (ARR) (Also Called Risk Difference [RD] or Attributable Risk [AR])
				12.70.1.3	 Relative Risk (RR) (Also Called Risk Ratio)
				12.70.1.4	 Relative Risk Reduction (RRR)
				12.70.1.5	 Odds Ratio (OR)
				12.70.1.6	 Number Needed to Treat (NNT)
				12.70.1.7	 Mean Difference (MD)
				12.70.1.8	 Cohen’s d, Standardized Mean Difference (SMD), Effect Size (ES)
		12.71	 Process Worksheets
			12.71.1 Process Worksheet Diagnostic Reasoning
			12.71.2 Process Worksheet Etiological Reasoning
			12.71.3 Process Worksheet Prognostic Reasoning
			12.71.4 Process Worksheet Therapeutic Reasoning
		12.72	 Answers to Questions
			12.72.1 Cognitive Response Test About the Use of Thinking Systems
			12.72.2 Exercise Sensitivity/Specificity
			12.72.3 Exercise with Positive and Negative Predictive Values
		References
	Glossary
	13: Education About Clinical Reasoning and Evidence-Based Practice
		13.1	 Explanation of the 4C/ID Model
		13.2	 Practical Tools for the Organisation of Education
		13.3	 Process Worksheets
		13.4	 Test Material
			13.4.1	 Complexity Level 2
			13.4.2	 Complexity Level 4
		Reference
Index