Climate Change and Water Resources in Africa: Perspectives and Solutions Towards an Imminent Water Crisis

Foreword by Felix D. Dakora
Foreword by Daniel Nyanganyura
Preface
Acknowledgements to Peer Reviewers
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1 Introduction
	1 Introduction
	2 The Challenges of Water Resource Management in the Context of Climate Change in Africa
	3 Toward Improved Management of Water Resources in the Context of Climate Change in Africa
		3.1 Create Enabling Policy and Institutional Conditions
		3.2 Invest in Ecological Infrastructure
		3.3 Invest in Climate-Smart Infrastructure and Technologies
		3.4 Improve Science and Information
		3.5 Work at Multiple Scales
		3.6 Decentralize Adaptation
		3.7 Consider the Water/Energy/Food/Health Nexus
	4 Conclusions
	References
2 Africa-Wide Trends in Development and Water Resources Through a Climate Change Lens
	1 Africa’s Economy and Water Use
	2 Africa’s Biodiversity
	3 Africa’s Climate
	4 Africa’s Water Infrastructure and Institutions
	5 Africa’s Future Is Now
	References
3 Water Resource Availability and Quality in the North Africa Region Under Climate Change
	1 Introduction
	2 Assessment of Water Resources
		2.1 Renewable Water Resources
		2.2 Non-renewable Water Resources
	3 International Shared River Basins
		3.1 Assessment of Transboundary River Basins
		3.2 Climate Change Impacts on the Nile River
	4 Non-conventional Water Sources
		4.1 Desalinated Water
		4.2 Wastewater and Reuse
	5 Water Resource Quality
	6 Technical Solutions and Research Challenges
	7 Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
4 Climate Change and Water Resources in West Africa: A Case Study of Ivory Coast, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Senegal
	1 Introduction
	2 Data and Methodology
		2.1 The Four Countries Included in the Study
		2.2 Data
	3 Research Findings
		3.1 Interannual Rainfall Variability
		3.2 Impacts of Rainfall Variation on Water Resources
		3.3 Impacts of Rainfall Variation on Socioeconomic Activities
		3.4 Adaptation Strategies
	4 Conclusion
	References
5 Climate Change Impact on Hydrological Regimes and Extreme Events in Southern Africa
	1 Introduction
	2 Water Resources in Southern Africa
	3 Climate Change in Southern Africa
		3.1 Temperature Changes in Southern Africa
		3.2 Rainfall Changes in Southern Africa
	4 Occurrence of Water-Related Extreme Events in Southern Africa
		4.1 Floods and Droughts
	5 Hydrological Regimes
	6 Discussion
		6.1 Climate Change Impact on Water Availability
		6.2 Extreme Events
		6.3 Vulnerability to Climate Change
		6.4 Hydrological Regimes
	7 Conclusion
	References
6 Historic Climatic Variability and Change: The Importance of Managing Holocene and Late Pleistocene Groundwater in the Limpopo River Basin, Southern Africa
	1 Introduction
	2 Methodology
	3 Results and Discussion
	4 Managing Historic Groundwater
	5 Conclusions
	References
7 A Framework for IWRM in the Water-Energy-Food Nexus for the Senegal River Delta
	1 Introduction
	2 Natural and Cultivated Environments: Constraints and Assets
	3 Agricultural and Agro-Economic Actors
		3.1 Brief Review of Agricultural Stakeholders
		3.2 Competition and Complementarities
		3.3 Other Local Water Users
		3.4 Industrial Water Process Uses: Case of CSS
	4 Current and Suggested Strategies for Climate Change Adaption
		4.1 Towards an IWRM and Water-Energy-Food Nexus
		4.2 First Achievements: Example of the CSS
		4.3 Proposed Water Energy Food Nexus Approach
		4.4 Proposed IWRM Approach
	5 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
8 Cumulative Impacts of Climate Change Variability Around the Goronyo Dam in the Iullemmeden Basin, Northwest Nigeria
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Aim and Objectives
	2 Literature
		2.1 Climate Change and the Impact on Dams
		2.2 Projected Changes in the Climate System
		2.3 Current Concern
		2.4 Study Area
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Data Collection and Analysis
		3.2 Climate Change Variability Analysis
	4 Results and Discussion
		4.1 Trend in Climate Variability Analysis
		4.2 Cumulative Effect on Water Supply
		4.3 Loss of Fishing Grounds
		4.4 Effect on Agricultural Farmlands
		4.5 Migration and Conflict
		4.6 The Role of Adaptation (Interventions)
		4.7 Management Approaches for Addressing the Impacts of Climate Change on Dams (the Goronyo Experience)
		4.8 Integrated Approach to Reservoir Management with Climate Change
	5 Conclusion
	References
9 Lentic-Lotic Water System Response to Anthropogenic and Climatic Factors in Kenya and Their Sustainable Management
	1 Introduction
	2 Threats and Issues Facing the Lake Basins
		2.1 Anthropogenic Factors
		2.2 Climatic Factors
	3 The Climate-Environment-Society Nexus in Lake Basins
	4 Management
	5 Conclusion
	References
10 Hydrology and Climate Impacts on Streamflow and Sediment Yield in the Nyando River Basin, Kenya
	1 Introduction
	2 Description of the Study Area
		2.1 Location
		2.2 Climate
		2.3 Vegetation Cover
		2.4 Land Use
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Data Types and Sources
		3.2 Secondary Data
		3.3 Analysis of Land-Use/Land Cover Changes
		3.4 Methods of Data Analysis
	4 Results
		4.1 Variability of Rainfall
		4.2 Variability of River Discharges
		4.3 Relationship Between Rainfall and River Discharge
		4.4 River Discharge and Rainfall Deficits
		4.5 Catchment Characteristics and Flood Flows
		4.6 River Discharge and Suspended Sediment Load
		4.7 Analysis of Land-Use Change
	5 Discussion
		5.1 Relationship Between Rainfall and Discharge
		5.2 Sediment Yield and Rainfall and Discharge
		5.3 Flooding in the Lower Nyando Basin
	6 Conclusions
	References
11 Saharan Agriculture in the Algerian Oasis: Limited Adaptation to Environmental, Social and Economic Changes
	1 Introduction
	2 Method
	3 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
	4 Forms of Social Adaptation to Government Disengagement
	5 Relaunch Traditional Oasis Agriculture and Revitalize Modern Agriculture
	6 Solutions to Ensure Irrigation Water: New Challenges, New Effects
	7 Conclusion
	References
12 Water Management Policy for Freshwater Security in the Context of Climate Change in Senegal
	1 Introduction
	2 Description of the Study Area
	3 Methodology
		3.1 Characterizing Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources
		3.2 Characterization of Water Policy in a Climate Change Context
	4 Results and Discussion
		4.1 Characterization of Climate Change Impacts: The Gambia Watershed
		4.2 Water Policy During Climate Change
	5 Conclusion
	References
13 Assessment of Hydrological Impacts of Climate Change on the Diarha Watershed
	1 Introduction
	2 Materials and Methods
		2.1 Study Area
		2.2 Data and Tools
		2.3 Methods
	3 Results
		3.1 Efficiency of the SAC-SMA Model in the Cross-Validation Phase
		3.2 Efficiency of the GR4J Model in the Cross-Validation Phase
		3.3 Future Temperature and Precipitation Changes
		3.4 Evolution of Annual Streamflow and Characteristic Flow Rates by 2050
	4 Discussion and Conclusions
	Appendix A
	Appendix B
	References
14 Water Resources in the Sahel and Adaptation of Agriculture to Climate Change: Burkina Faso
	1 Introduction
	2 Water Resources
		2.1 Rainwater
		2.2 Surface Water
		2.3 Groundwater
	3 Impacts of Climate Change
		3.1 The Agricultural Sector
		3.2 The Watersheds
		3.3 The Population Perspective
	4 Adaptation Policies and Strategies
		4.1 The Rural World
		4.2 Public Authorities
		4.3 Scientific Research
	5 Conclusion
	References
15 Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources in the Volta River Basin: Reducing Vulnerability and Enhancing Livelihoods and Sustainable Development
	1 Introduction
	2 The Volta Basin
		2.1 Physical and Geopolitical Settings
		2.2 The River System
		2.3 Climate Conditions
		2.4 Groundwater
	3 Observed Changes in Temperature and Rainfall
		3.1 Changes in Historical Temperatures
		3.2 Changes in Historical Rainfall Amounts
	4 Climate Scenarios and Projection of Climate Change in the Basin
	5 Agriculture, Water Resources and Climate Change
		5.1 Climate Change Impacts on Crop Production and Adaptation Strategies
		5.2 Climate Impacts on Livestock-Rearing and Adaptation Strategies
		5.3 Climate Change Impacts on Inland Fisheries and Adaptation Strategies
		5.4 Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Issues
	6 Sustainable Development Issues
	7 Climate Change, Water, Health and Sanitation
	8 Conclusions
	References
16 Potential Transboundary Impacts of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Under Climate Change and Variability
	1 The Nile River Basin and the Blue Nile Basin Climate Variability
	2 The “GERD” and The “Agreement on the Declaration of Principles”
	3 GERD Impact Assessment Methodology, Scenarios, and Assumptions
	4 Hydrological Impact Scenarios of the GERD Under Climate Variability
	5 GERD Operation After Filling During a Low 10-Year Average Flow (38 BCM/Year)
	6 GERD Operation After Filling During a Moderate 10-Year Average Flow (45 BCM/Year)
	7 GERD Operation After Filling During a 10-Year Average Flow (50 BCM/Year)
	8 Deficit Years and Volumes for Selected GERD Filling and Operation Scenarios
	9 GERD Impacts on HAD Hydropower
	10 Potential Climate Change Impacts on the Blue Nile Flows
	11 Conclusion
	12 Recommendations
	References
17 Strengthening Flood and Drought Risk Management Tools for the Lake Chad Basin
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Supporting the Lake Chad Basin Commission and Its Member States
	2 Overview of the Lake Chad System
		2.1 Rationale and Background
		2.2 Main Components of the System
		2.3 Details of Each Component
	3 Validation of Historic Data and Evaluation of Forecast Skill
		3.1 Evaluation of Historic Data
		3.2 Evaluation of GEFS Short-Term Forecasts
	4 Conclusions
	Appendix
	References
18 Developing a Framework for the Water-Energy-Food Nexus in South Africa
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Current Status of the WEF Nexus in South Africa
	2 Methodology
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Applicability of Other Existing Frameworks to the WEF Nexus in South Africa
		3.2 A Proposed South African-Based WEF Nexus Framework
		3.3 Potential Indices, Metrics, and Models for Evaluating the WEF Nexus
	4 Conclusions
	References
19 Mainstreaming Climate Change into Transboundary River Basins: A SADC Regional Case Study
	1 Introduction
	2 Climate Outlook for Southern Africa
	3 The Orange-Senqu River Basin
		3.1 Background and General Climatic Conditions in Southern Africa with Implications for the Orange-Senqu Basin
		3.2 Modeling Climate Change Impacts
		3.3 Assessing Climate Change Impacts on Key Hydrological Drivers and Responses in the Orange-Senqu River Basin
		3.4 Projected Changes Due to Climate Change in the Orange-Senqu River Basin
	4 Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP)
		4.1 Livelihoods and Vulnerabilities
		4.2 Climate Change Impacts on the LHWP
		4.3 Key Issues to Address to Ensure Water Security Under a Changing Climate
		4.4 Recommendations for the LHWP
	5 The Limpopo River Basin
		5.1 Hydrology, Climate, and Climate Change
		5.2 Vulnerability and Impacts
		5.3 Water Governance and Management-Related Issues
		5.4 Adaptation Measures and Recommendations
	6 The Incomati River Basin
		6.1 Water Governance, Management, and Use
		6.2 Hydrology and Current Climate
		6.3 Climate Change, Vulnerability, and Impacts
		6.4 Adaptation Measures and Recommendations
	7 Barriers to Mainstreaming of Climate Change
	8 Conclusions
	References
20 Does the Use of Local Knowledge in Complex Systems Reduce Vulnerability to Climate Change? Insights from Nexus Water Management in the Niger Basin
	1 Introduction
	2 Complex Adaptive Systems and Climate Change
	3 Vulnerability, Resilience, and Adaptation
	4 Role of Governance, Participation, and Local Knowledge
	5 Materials and Methods
	6 Results
		6.1 Inclusion of Civil Society and User Groups in Basin Governance of the Niger Basin Authority (Case Study 1)
		6.2 Increased Vulnerability of Displaced Communities at the Kandadji Dam (Case Study 2)
		6.3 Discrepancies in System Understanding Around the Fomi Dam (Case Study 3)
	7 Discussion
	8 Conclusions
	Annex—Data for Analysis
	References
21 Proposed Research, Science, Technology, and Innovation to Address Current and Future Challenges of Climate Change and Water Resource Management in Africa
	1 Introduction
	2 Water and Land Resource Demand Management, vulnerability to climate change Impacts, Sustainable Food Security, and Socioeconomic Development
		2.1 Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater as a Tool for Integrated River Basin Management
		2.2 Practical Conjunctive Water Management Systems for Surface and Groundwater, Saltwater and Freshwater Resources to Adapt to Climate Change
		2.3 Developing Cost-Effective Technologies for Floodwater Harvesting, Treatment and Artificial Recharging of Aquifers, Sediment Harvesting, and Irrigation
	3 Water and Soil Conservation at River Basin Scale Through Eroded Soil and Water Harvesting, Afforestation, Soil Fertility, Erosion, and Sediment Management
		3.1 Conjunctive Management of Fresh, Salty and Wastewater for Irrigation and Artificial Recharge of Aquifers
	4 Strengthening Capacities of Urban and Rural Communities to Circumvent Institutional Constraints and Economic and Socio-Political Turbulence
	5 Commercializing and Mechanizing Indigenous African Small-Scale Farming
	6 Diversified Products, Enhanced Reforestation, and Pasture Revitalization
	7 Cost-Effective Urban Wastewater and Sludge Treatment Systems and Reuse in Agriculture
	8 Mitigate Water Stresses and Improve Resilience Against Droughts
	9 Food Security Anchored in Cost-Effective Supplementary Irrigated Agriculture
	10 Cost-Effective Mechanization of Small-Scale Farms with Low-Cost Technology
	11 Adopting Renewable Energy Technologies to Save Forests and Economically Empower Communities
	12 Forging Sustainable and Effective Technology for Rural African Areas
	13 Conclusion
	References
Index