CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH

Foreword
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Introduction: Consequences of Global Warming to Planetary and Human Health
	Introduction to Greenhouse Gases and Temperature
	Consequences of Climate Change on the Biosphere
		Loss of Arctic Ice
		Loss of Antarctic Ice
		Loss of Glaciers
		Risks to Forests
		Mean Sea-Level Rise
		Bleaching of Coral Reefs
		Threat to Biodiversity
	Consequences for Human Health
		Heat waves
		Air Pollution
		Vector-Borne Diseases
	Implications for Social Stability
		Drought, Forest Fires, Food Insecurity, and Migration
		Hurricanes and Extreme Weather Events
		Insurability for Extreme Events
		United States Military
	Efforts at Mitigation and Adaptation
		Policy: Global
		Policy: The United States
		Mitigation: Renewables
		Mitigation: Cap-and-Trade and Carbon Tax
		Efforts to Combat Climate Change by Cities and States
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2: Climate Variability and Change Data and Information for Global Public Health
	So What Is Climate Data, How Do I Know What I Need, How Do I Get It, and How Do I Use It?
	Data Culture
	Defining Terms
	Early Warning, Prediction, Forecast, Outlook, Projection, Scenario
	How to Think About Climate Data—Or When to Use What?
		Scale
		Source
		Products
		Reanalysis
		Projections
	Assessing Climate Data Partners
	Conclusion
Chapter 3: Climate Change: Updates on Recent Global and United States Temperature Anomalies and Impacts to Water, Forests, and Environmental Health
	Recent Changes to Global and United States Surface Temperatures
	Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources and Water Quality
	Climate Change Impacts on Watershed Health
	Climate Change Impacts on Forests and Forest Health
		Forest Insects
		Forest Diseases
		Wildfire
		Invasive Species
	References
Chapter 4: Eyewitness to Climate Change
	Eyewitness to Climate Change
	Addressing Climate Change at the International Level
		The UNFCCC
		The Kyoto Protocol
		The Bali Road Map
		The Copenhagen Accord
		COP21: Paris Agreement
		Post COP21: Subsequent Action Toward 2020 and Beyond
	Education for Action
	References
Chapter 5: Arctic Connections to Global Warming and Health
	Rapid Environmental and Societal Change in the Arctic
		Ecosystems Under Stress
	Future Projections and Feedbacks to the Global Climate System
	Environmental and Health Policy for a Changing Land
		Adapting to a New Arctic
		New Frontiers for Development
		Threats of Oil and Gas Development in the Arctic Refuge
		Food Security
		Community Health
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 6: Assessing the Health Risks of Climate Change
	Introduction
	Traditional Risk Assessment Approaches Are Inappropriate for Estimating the Health Risks of Climate Change
	Determining the Extent to Which Climate Change Has Affected Health
	Risk Management as an Appropriate Framework for Assessing the Health Risks of Climate Variability and Change
	Vulnerability, Capacity, and Adaptation Assessments to Estimate Local to Regional Health Risks of Climate Change
	Assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
	Discussion
	References
Chapter 7: Heat Waves and Rising Temperatures: Human Health Impacts and the Determinants of Vulnerability
	Introduction
	Vulnerable Populations: Multiple Determinants of Ambient Heat Health Impacts
		Populations and Subgroups at Elevated Risk: Insights from Epidemiology
		Environmental Health Multiple-Determinants Model of Vulnerability
		Biological Adaptations to Heat Stress and Susceptibility and Pathophysiology of Heat Illness
		Thermoregulation, Acclimatization, and Thermotolerance
		Heat Acclimatization and Thermotolerance
	Heat Stress-Related Morbidity and Pathophysiology of Severe Heat-Related Illness
		Heat Stroke
		Heat-Related Illness: Pathophysiology
		Vulnerable Populations: Determinants of Thermoregulatory Capacity
			Older Adults
			Infants and Children
		Determinants of Thermoregulatory Capacity: Additional Population Subgroups
			Sex/Gender
			Race/Ethnicity
			Genetics/Epigenetics
	Global Environmental and Societal Challenges Affecting Population Vulnerability
	Strategies to Reduce Vulnerability and Incidence of Heat-Related Morbidity/Mortality
		Promote Good Health and Access to Quality Healthcare
		Reduce/Manage Potential Exposures to Ambient Heat and Other Physical Environmental Stressors
		Extreme Heat Event and Warm Season Heat Preparedness and Response Action Plans
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: Climate, Air Quality, and Allergy: Emerging Methods for Detecting Linkages
	Introduction
	Case Study 1: Climate, O3, and Heat in the NYC Metropolitan Region
		Epidemiologic Analysis of Historical Data
		Future Projections of Temperature and O3
		Health Impact Assessment
		Results
		Discussion and Implications
	Case Study 2: Spring Pollen Peaks and Over-the-Counter Allergy Medication Sales
		Introduction
		Data and Methods
		Results and Discussion
	Summary
	References
Chapter 9: The Human Health Co-benefits of Air Quality Improvements Associated with Climate Change Mitigation
	Overview
	Health Effects of Particulate Matter
		Short-Term Exposure Effects of PM
		Long-Term Exposure Effects of PM
		Health Effects of PM Constituents
	Health Effects of Tropospheric Ozone
		Short-Term Exposure Health Effects of O3
	Long-Term Exposure Mortality Effects of O3
	Ancillary Health Benefits of Climate Change Mitigation
		Framework of Climate Mitigation Co-benefits Assessment
		Studies of Health and Air Pollution Benefits and Costs of Climate Change Mitigation
		Monetary Valuations of Mitigation Co-benefits
	Implications
	References
Chapter 10: Asthma, Hay Fever, Pollen, and Climate Change
	Climate Change, Hurricanes, and Respiratory Health
		Hurricane Katrina (2005)
		Mold
		Volatile Organic Compounds
		Infectious Disease
		Particulate Matter
		Floodwater
		Large Cohort Studies
		PTSD and Asthma/Smoking Behavior
		Accessibility to Healthcare Facilities and Medicine
		Hurricane Sandy (2012)
	Hurricane Maria (2017)
	Bibliography
Chapter 11: California and Climate Changes: An Update
	Introduction
	Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Temperature and Mortality
		Temperature and Mortality Studies in the United States Including California
		Temperature and Mortality Studies in California
			Vulnerable Subgroups
			Mortality Displacement
			Heat Waves and Mortality
	Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Temperature and Morbidity
		Temperature and Hospitalizations/Emergency Room Visits
			Heat Waves and Morbidity
		Temperature and Adverse Birth Outcomes
	Future Projections for Temperature and Mortality
	Biological Mechanisms
	Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12: Vector-Borne Diseases in a Changing Climate and World
	Introduction
	Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Drivers, Dynamics, and Risk
		Climatic Drivers of Mosquito-Borne Diseases
		Non-climatic Drivers of Disease and Their Interactions with Climatic Drivers
	Predicting Climate Change Impacts on Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Current Status and Challenges
	Linking Climate and Climate Change Research to Health Policy and Programming: Current Initiatives
	Future Directions for Research
	References
Chapter 13: Dengue Fever and Climate Change
	Introduction to Dengue Fever and Climate Change
	Dengue Disease
	Vectors and Transmission of Dengue
	Climatic Effects on Entomological and Viral Parameters in the Dengue Transmission Cycle
		Temperature
		Relative Humidity
		Precipitation
			Climatic Influence on Biting Behavior and Extrinsic Incubation Period
			Daily Temperature Variation Effects on Vectorial Capacity
			Climate-Based, Mechanistic Dengue Transmission Models
			Lessons Learned from Observational Studies
	Populations at Risk: Present and Future
	Non-climatic Risk Factors
	Other Indirect Effects of Climate Change on Dengue Risk
	Regional Implications
		Asia
		Australia and Oceania
		The Middle East and North Africa
		Africa
		Europe
		Latin America
		The United States
	References
Chapter 14: Climate Variability and Change: Food, Water, and Societal Impacts
	Past Climate Trends and Future Projections
	Climate Change, Sea-Level Rise, and Extremes in Climate Variability
		Sea Surface Temperatures and Hurricanes
		Vulnerable Geographic Regions
	Food Productivity and Malnutrition
		Food Production and Drought
		Fisheries
	Extreme Weather Events and Health
		Natural Disasters
		Floods
		Wildfires
		Sea-Level Rise and Health
	Water- and Food-Borne Diseases
		Freshwater
		Marine Environments
	Land-Use Effects on Weather and Health
	The Public Health Response
		Mitigation and Adaptation
		“Co-benefits” from Mitigating Climate Change
		Side Effects and Unintended Consequences
		Ethical Considerations
		Financial Considerations
	Summary
	References
Chapter 15: Hurricanes and Health: Vulnerability in an Age of Climate Change
	Introduction
	Physical Health Effects of Hurricanes
		Mortality
		Injuries
		Infectious Diseases
		Chronic Diseases
		Mold-Related Illness
	Mental Health Effects of Hurricanes
		Exposure and Post-disaster Mental Health
		Risk Factors for Post-Hurricane Mental Health Effects
		Social Support and Resilience as Protective Factors
	Conclusion
		Current Challenges and the Future of Hurricane-Health Research
	References
Chapter 16: The Impact of Climate Change and Extreme Weather Conditions on Agricultural Health and Safety in California
	Introduction
	Climate Change and Occupational Health and Safety
	California Agriculture and Its Workforce
	Farmworker Occupational Hazards and Health Status
	Climate Change and Extreme Weather in California
	Impact of Extreme Weather in Agriculture
	Perceptions of Risk: Impact of Extreme Weather on Occupational Health and Safety in California Agriculture
	Case Study: Drought
	Case Study: Heat
	Case Study: Wildfires
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 17: Household Air Pollution from Cookstoves: Impacts on Health and Climate
	Cooking Fires and the Role of Women
	Common Challenges to Clean Cooking Solutions
	Globalization of Clean Cooking Solutions
	Cookstove Performance Standards and Testing Centers
	Health Impacts of Household Air Pollution
	Vulnerable Populations to Adverse Health Outcomes with Household Air Pollution
	Regional Environmental Degradation
	Contribution of HAP to Outdoor Air Pollution
	Role of Black Carbon and Other Short-Lived Climate Forcers
	Improved Cookstoves or Fuels as Interventions to Reduce Health Impacts
	The Surya Project as a Model of Potential Interventions to Reduce Climate Impacts
	Value of Co-benefits for Human Health and Climate
	Summary
	References
Chapter 18: Biomass Fuel and Lung Diseases: An Indian Perspective
	Introduction
	Biomass Fuel Use in India
	Morbidity and Mortality
	Emissions from a Biomass Stove and Exposure-Determining Factors
	Architecture of the House and Biomass Smoke Exposure
	Respiratory Health Effects of Biomass Fuels
		Acute Lower Respiratory Infection (ALRI) in Children Under 5 Years of Age
		Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
		Lung Cancer
		Tuberculosis
		Pneumoconiosis and Interstitial Lung Diseases (ILD)
	Biomass Fuel Exposure and Lung Functions
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 19: Climate Change and Women’s Health: Risks and Opportunities
	Introduction
	Heat Impacts
	Impacts of Poor Air Quality
	Extreme Weather Events and Disasters
	Food Insecurity and Malnutrition
	Water Scarcity and Waterborne Disease
	Vector-Borne Disease
	Migration Issues
	International Policy Response
	Local Solutions: Building from the Ground Up
		Empowering Clean Energy Solutions
		Leading Community Resilience
		Climate-Resilient Farming
	Conclusions
	References
Chapter 20: The Impact of Climate Change on Public Health in Small Island States and Caribbean Countries
	Introduction
	The Physical Context: Current and Expected (by 2100) Physical Effects of Climate Change on Small Island States
		Atmospheric Temperatures
		Sea-Level Rise and Ocean Acidification
		Hydrology and Storm Events
		Ecosystem Structural Changes
	The Socio-Economic Situation: Potential Socio-Economic Effects of CC on Caribbean SIDS
		Energy, Water, and Waste Management
		Agriculture and Fisheries: Food Security
		Tourism
		Infrastructure and Population Displacement
	Potential Public Health Consequences Related with Climate Change in the Caribbean
	Conclusion/Recommendations
	References
Chapter 21: Global Climate Change, Desertification, and Its Consequences in Turkey and the Middle East
	Greenhouse Gas Emissions
	Climate Change
	Desertification
	Consequences of Climate Change and Desertification
		Sandstorms and Dust Storms
		Water Use
		Loss of Biodiversity
		Human Health
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 22: Climate Change and the Risk of Desertification with a Focus in the United States
	Desert Dust Geochemistry and Its Fingerprints
	Dust Size Definitions
	Dust Geographic Distribution
	Desert Dust Effects on Health
	Pulmonary Effects
	Neurological Effects
	Cardiovascular Effects
	Infections
	Health Effects of Dust Contaminated with Pesticides and Metals
	Harmful Algal Blooms and Health Impact
	Impact of Dust Exposure in US War Veterans
	Desert Dust and Experimental Studies
	Future Directions
	References
Chapter 23: Federal Programs in Climate Change and Health Research
	Introduction
	Federal Climate Change Research Prior to 1990
	The Global Change Research Act of 1990 (GCRA) and the United States Global Change Research Program (USGCRP)
	Early Federal Activities Related to Climate Change and Health
	Founding of the GCRP Interagency Climate Change and Human Health Group
		Integrated Climate and Health Data Products: MATCH and data.gov
		Climate Resilience Toolkit
		2016 GCRP Climate Health Assessment
		Workshop Report on Climate-Sensitive Infectious Disease
		International Scientific Activities on Climate Change and Health
	Current Federal Agency Activities in Climate Change and Health
		Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)
			The National Institutes of Health (NIH)
		NIH Climate Change and Health Research Funding
		NIEHS Climate Change and Health Program
			Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
				Building Resilience Against Climate Effects (BRACE) Framework
				Climate-Ready States and Cities Initiative (CRSCI)
				National Environmental Public Health Tracking Network
				Partnerships and Outreach
			National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
				Health and Air Quality Applied Sciences Team (HAQAST)
					TOOL: SERVIR
			U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)
				TOOL: Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS)
			National Science Foundation (NSF)
		The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
		Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
		Department of Agriculture (USDA)
	References
Chapter 24: Management of Climate Change Adaptation at the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
	Overview of CDC’S Climate and Health Program
	Adaptive Management and Its Role
	Building Resilience Against Climate Effects (BRACE)
		The Five Steps of BRACE
			Step 1: Anticipating Climate Impacts and Assessing Vulnerabilities
			Step 2: Projecting the Disease Burden
			Step 3: Assessing Public Health Interventions
			Step 4: Developing and Implementing a Climate and Health Adaptation Plan
			Step 5: Evaluating Impact and Improving Quality of Activities
	CDC National Environmental Public Health Tracking Network
	Climate-Ready States and Cities Initiative
	CDC Science Symposium on Climate and Health
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 25: Rules, Rulings, and Repeals: The Shifting State of Climate Policy at U.S. EPA
	Serve: Climate Policy Under the Bush EPA
	Return: The Supreme Court’s Decision in Massachusetts v. EPA
	Serve: Climate Policy Under the Obama EPA, Part 1
		Endangerment and Contribution Findings
		Mobile Source Regulation: Vehicle Emission Standards and California Waiver
		Stationary Source Regulation: Triggering and Tailoring Rules
	Return: The Supreme Court’s Decision in Utility Air Regulatory Group v. EPA
	Serve: Climate Policy Under the Obama EPA, Round 2
		Mobile Source Regulation: More Vehicle Standards and Another California Waiver
		Stationary Source Regulation: Carbon Dioxide Standards for New and Existing Power Plants and Methane Standards for the Oil and Gas Sector
	Re…traction: Climate Policy Under the Trump EPA
		Mobile Sources: Freezing Vehicle Standards and Revoking the California Waiver
		Stationary Sources: Weakening New Source Performance Standards and Replacing the Clean Power Plan
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 26: California’s Integrated Approach to Air Quality and Climate Change
	References
Chapter 27: Climate Change and Public Health Interventions
	Introduction
	Adapting Public Health Conceptual Models for Climate and Health Interventions
	Practitioners for Climate and Health Interventions
	Climate and Health Interventions in Practice
	Building an Evidence Base of Climate and Health Interventions
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 28: Integrating Climate Change, the Environment, and Sustainability Themes Into Professional Health Sciences Courses: A Case Study Across a University System
	Background and History
	Pathways and Models for SHE Inclusion
	The Faculty Training Workshop
		University of California Leadership
		The Workshop Concept
		Executive Sponsorship
		Faculty Leads
		Training Workshop for Faculty Leads
		Agenda, Speakers, and Group Exercise
		Timelines
		Library of Resources
		Creating SHE Communities at Each Campus
		Linking Deans and Vice Deans of Education
	Evaluation Framework
	Budgets and Forms of Support
	Conclusion
	Appendix A
	Appendix B
	Appendix C
		Climate Change and Sustainability Across the Curriculum
			Module Exercise - University of California Courses
	Appendix D: Evaluation Instruments, Details, and Program Objectives Addressed
	References
Chapter 29: The Physician’s Response to Climate Change
	References
Index