Cinnamon: Botany, Agronomy, Chemistry and Industrial Applications

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Sri Lanka and Its Cinnamon Industry
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Origin and a Brief Biogeography of the Rainforest Region of Sri Lanka, Home to Eight Endemic Cinnamomum Species
		1.2.1 Origin and Geography of Sri Lanka
		1.2.2 Biogeography of the Rainforest Region
	1.3 Cinnamon Trade in Ancient Ceylon (Sri Lanka): A Historical Sketch
		1.3.1 Pre-colonial Period
		1.3.2 Colonial Period
			1.3.2.1 The Portuguese Period
			1.3.2.2 The Dutch Period
			1.3.2.3 The British Period
	1.4 Agro-Ecology of Cultivated Cinnamon in Sri Lanka
		1.4.1 Impact of Deforestation to Establish Plantation Agriculture
		1.4.2 Socio-economic Structure
	1.5 Progress and Challenges of the Sri Lankan Cinnamon Industry
		1.5.1 Trends in Cinnamon Production in Post-Independence Sri Lanka
		1.5.2 Status of Endemic Cinnamomum Species in Sri Lanka
		1.5.3 Avenues for Expanding Cultivation and Increasing Production
		1.5.4 Value Addition, Product Diversification and Compliance with Quality Standards
		1.5.5 International Cinnamon Trade
	1.6 The Tale of Four C’s: Cinnamon, Cassia and Coumarin Conundrum
		1.6.1 Regulations Pertaining to Coumarin Due to Hepatotoxic and Carcinogenic Properties
		1.6.2 Coumarin Content in Cinnamon, Cassia and Food Products
	1.7 Way Forward for Sri Lankan Cinnamon Industry
		1.7.1 True Ceylon Cinnamon Is Like No Other Spice; Unique to Sri Lanka
		1.7.2 Development of Promising Clonal Cultivars
		1.7.3 Production of Elite Planting Material
		1.7.4 Expansion of Cinnamon Cultivation
		1.7.5 Agro-Technology
		1.7.6 Land Reforms and Digital Intervention for Improved Productivity and Profitability
		1.7.7 Studies on Factors Affecting Chemical Profile and Organoleptic Properties
		1.7.8 Development of Cost-Effective and Time-Efficient Processing Technologies
		1.7.9 Value Addition and New Product Development
		1.7.10 Compliance with Stringent Requirements of Importing Countries
		1.7.11 Establishment of a Global Market Research Facility
	References
Chapter 2: Historical, Ethno-Botanical and Social Aspects of Cinnamon Cultivation in Sri Lanka
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Growth of the Indian Ocean Trade and Sri Lanka: A Brief Historical Sketch
	2.3 Historical Developments in Sri Lanka Since Thirteenth Century and Cinnamon Trade
	2.4 Cinnamon in the Economic Relations in the WS Region
	2.5 Early European Encounter and the Role of Cinnamon
	2.6 Cinnamon and the Dutch
	2.7 Cinnamon in Kandyan Lands
	2.8 Cinnamon and the Socio-economic Life of the Peasantry
	2.9 Cinnamon Industry After Plantations
	2.10 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 3: Ceylon Cinnamon Production and Markets
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Production
	3.3 Cinnamon Products
		3.3.1 Harmonized System Code-Based Cinnamon Product Categories
		3.3.2 Ceylon Cinnamon and Cassia
	3.4 Compliance on Food Safety and Quality Standards
		3.4.1 Product and Process Standards for Cinnamon
		3.4.2 Ceylon Cinnamon Grades
			3.4.2.1 Foxing
			3.4.2.2 Good Agricultural Practices
			3.4.2.3 Good Manufacturing Practice
			3.4.2.4 ISO 22000:2005
			3.4.2.5 Food Safety System Certification 22000
			3.4.2.6 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
			3.4.2.7 British Retail Consortium
		3.4.3 Compliance, Awareness, and Perception of Food Safety and Quality Standards
	3.5 Marketing of Ceylon Cinnamon
		3.5.1 Marketing Mix-Product
			3.5.1.1 Major Ceylon Cinnamon Product Forms Exported Under Private Labeling
		3.5.2 Marketing Mix-Price
			3.5.2.1 Export Prices for Ceylon Cinnamon Products Under Private Labeling
		3.5.3 Marketing Mix-Place
		3.5.4 Marketing Mix-Promotion
		3.5.5 Competitive Market Landscape Analysis
		3.5.6 Brand Landscape for Ceylon Cinnamon
	3.6 Unutilized Potentials of Value Addition in Ceylon Cinnamon
	References
Chapter 4: Botany of Endemic Cinnamomum Species of Sri Lanka
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Cinnamomum Species Endemic to Sri Lanka and Their Features
		4.2.1 Identification of Cinnamomum Species Endemic to Sri Lanka
		4.2.2 Differences in Leaf and Bark Oil Content and Composition in Cinnamomum Species Endemic to Sri Lanka
	4.3 Distribution, Conservation Status, and General Features of Cinnamomum Species Endemic to Sri Lanka
		4.3.1 C. zeylanicum
		4.3.2 C. litseaefolium
		4.3.3 C. dubium
		4.3.4 C. capparu coronde
		4.3.5 C. citriodorum
		4.3.6 C. ovalifolium
		4.3.7 C. rivulorum
		4.3.8 C. sinharajaense
	4.4 Comparative Morphology of Cinnamomum Species Endemic to Sri Lanka
		4.4.1 Leaf Morphology
			4.4.1.1 Leaf Size and Shape
			4.4.1.2 Other Leaf Characters
	4.5 Plant Morphology
	4.6 Floral Morphology
	4.7 Petiole, Leaf, Root, and Stem Anatomy of C. zeylanicum Blume from Sri Lanka: Taxonomic Implications
		4.7.1 Petiole Anatomy
		4.7.2 Leaf Anatomy: Cuticle Epidermis, Trichomes, and Stomatal Complex
		4.7.3 Root and Stem Anatomy
		4.7.4 Anatomical Features of the Vascular Tissues of C. zeylanicum
			4.7.4.1 Petiole and Leaf Vascular Tissue
			4.7.4.2 Root and Stem Vascular Tissue
		4.7.5 Crystals
	References
Chapter 5: Genetics and Molecular Characterization of Genus Cinnamomum
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Genetic Characterization of Genus Cinnamomum
		5.2.1 Genetic Characterization Using Morphological Traits
			5.2.1.1 Species Level Diversity
			5.2.1.2 Within Species Diversity
		5.2.2 Genetic Characterization Using Biochemical Markers
	5.3 Molecular Characterization
		5.3.1 DNA Fingerprinting at Species Level and Within Species
		5.3.2 DNA Barcoding and Chloroplast Sequencing
		5.3.3 Genome and Transcriptome Sequencing
	5.4 Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 6: Germplasm Resources, Breeding Technologies and the Release of Cinnamon Cultivars ‘Sri Wijaya’ and ‘Sri Gemunu’ in Sri Lanka
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Distribution of the Genus Cinnamomum
		6.1.2 Cinnamomum Species Endemic to Sri Lanka
		6.1.3 Cytology
	6.2 Distribution and Genetic Resources of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume.
		6.2.1 Origin and Distribution of C. zeylanicum
		6.2.2 Germplasm Resources of C. zeylanicum Blume.
	6.3 Genetic Studies on Agronomic and Quality Traits of C. zeylanicum Blume.
		6.3.1 Genetic Variation Within C. zeylanicum
	6.4 Interspecific Variation in Cinnamomum
	6.5 Reproductive Biology of Cinnamon in Relation to Breeding
		6.5.1 Morphology of the Floral Organs
		6.5.2 Synchronised (Protogynous) Dichogamy as a Mechanism Ensuring Cross-Pollination
		6.5.3 Controlled Pollination
	6.6 Handling Hybrid Seeds and Populations
	6.7 Implications of the Juvenile Period and Vegetative Propagation in Cinnamon Breeding
		6.7.1 Juvenile Period in Relation to Breeding of Cinnamon
		6.7.2 Vegetative Propagation in Relation to Breeding of Cinnamon
	6.8 Breeding Strategy and Objectives
		6.8.1 The Need for Long-Term Planning, Funding and Collaboration
		6.8.2 Cultivated and Wild Gene Pools
	6.9 Unconventional Breeding Methods
		6.9.1 Interspecific Hybridisation and Embryo Culture
		6.9.2 Induced Mutations
		6.9.3 In Vitro Techniques for Genetic Improvement
		6.9.4 Molecular Genetic Approaches
	6.10 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7: Ecology, Agronomy and Management of Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume)
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Cultivated Varieties
	7.3 Ecological Requirements
		7.3.1 Climatic Conditions
			7.3.1.1 Rainfall
			7.3.1.2 Temperature
			7.3.1.3 Day Length and Insolation
			7.3.1.4 Wind
			7.3.1.5 Effect of Climate on Development of Organoleptic Properties
		7.3.2 Edaphic Requirements
		7.3.3 Soil and Water Conservation
	7.4 Identification of Suitable Areas for Expansion of Cinnamon Cultivation
	7.5 Propagation of Cinnamon
		7.5.1 Propagation by Seeds
			7.5.1.1 Methods of Prolonging Seed Viability
		7.5.2 Nursery Management
		7.5.3 Vegetative Propagation (VP)
			7.5.3.1 Propagation by Cuttings and Air-Layering
		7.5.4 Micropropagation of Cinnamon
			7.5.4.1 Surface Sterilization and Culture Establishment
			7.5.4.2 Shoot Proliferation
			7.5.4.3 Adventitious Root Induction in In Vitro Propagation of Cinnamon
			7.5.4.4 Establishment of Rooted Plantlets of Cinnamon
		7.5.5 Canopy Characteristics and Other Attributes of Plants Propagated by Seeds and Single Nodal Cuttings
	7.6 Land Preparation and Field Establishment
	7.7 After-Care Operations
		7.7.1 Gap Filling
		7.7.2 Irrigation
		7.7.3 Weed Management
		7.7.4 Nutrition and Fertilization
		7.7.5 Training and Pruning
		7.7.6 Pests and Diseases
	7.8 Production of Organic Cinnamon
	7.9 Harvesting
	7.10 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 8: Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume)
	8.1 Introduction
		8.1.1 Importance
		8.1.2 Insect Pests and Diseases of Cinnamon
	8.2 Insect Pests of Cinnamon
		8.2.1 Major Insect Pests
			8.2.1.1 Cinnamon Wood Borer (I. cinnamomumi Tosevskiis)
			8.2.1.2 Cinnamon Leaf Gall Makers
				Management
			8.2.1.3 Upper Surface Leaf Galls: The Jumping Plant Louse (T. cinnamomi) or Psyllids
				Homoptera: Triozidae
			8.2.1.4 Lower Leaf Galls (Eriophyes boisi; Acarina; Eriophydae)
			8.2.1.5 Cinnamon Thrips
				Management
			8.2.1.6 Cinnamon Red Borer (Z. coffeae Nietn. Thysanoptera: Cossidae)
				Management
			8.2.1.7 Cinnamon Root Grubs (Anomala sp. Scarabaeidae)
				Management
			8.2.1.8 Cinnamon Shot-Hole Borer (Scolytidae)
				Management
		8.2.2 Minor Insect Pests
			8.2.2.1 Cinnamon Butterfly, the Common Mime (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) (Papilio clytia (Synonym: C. clytia)
				Management
			8.2.2.2 Atlas Moth, A. atlas (Linnaeus 1758)
			8.2.2.3 The Leaf and Shoot Webber (Orthaga vitialis): (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
				Management
			8.2.2.4 Common Blue Bottle (Graphium sarpendum); Lepidoptera; Papilionidae)
			8.2.2.5 The Leaf Miner, Acrocercops spp. (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae)
			8.2.2.6 Shoot Boring Weevil: A. clauses: Curculionidae
				Management
			8.2.2.7 Fruit Borer (Alcides morio Heller) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
			8.2.2.8 Leaf Eating Caterpillar Euproctis fraterna (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)
			8.2.2.9 Leaf Eating Caterpillar Dasychira mendosa (Lepidoptera: Lymatriidae)
			8.2.2.10 Looper Caterpillar (Thalassodes spp.) Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae
			8.2.2.11 Other Minor Pests
	8.3 Diseases of Cinnamon
		8.3.1 Major Diseases in Cinnamon
			8.3.1.1 Rough Bark Disease (Phomopsis sp.)
				Disease Management
			8.3.1.2 Leaf Blight (C. gloeosporioides)
				Disease Management
			8.3.1.3 White Root Disease (R. microporus; syn. R. lignosus)
			8.3.1.4 Brown Root Rot (P. noxius (Corner) G. Cunn.)
				Disease Management
			8.3.1.5 Stripe Canker (Phytophthora cinnamomi)
		8.3.2 Minor Diseases
			8.3.2.1 Gray Leaf Spots/Blight (Pestalotia sp. Petch)
			8.3.2.2 Black Sooty Mold (Stenella spp.)
			8.3.2.3 Red Rust or Algal Leaf Spots (C. virescens)
			8.3.2.4 Pink Disease (Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Broome)
			8.3.2.5 Other Diseases
	8.4 Vertebrate Pests and Their Management in Cinnamon
	References
Chapter 9: Cinnamon Process Technology
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Traditional Cinnamon Quill Making Process
		9.2.1 Field Harvesting
			9.2.1.1 Scraping
			9.2.1.2 Rubbing
			9.2.1.3 Peeling
	9.3 Cinnamon Products
		9.3.1 Cinnamon Quills
			9.3.1.1 Quillings
	9.4 Technology Shift from Traditional Processing to Machine Processing
	9.5 Constraints to Increase of Production and Value-Addition Through Processing
	9.6 Machinery Designs and Adoption
		9.6.1 Instruments Available for Mechanization of Cinnamon Peeling Industry
			9.6.1.1 Cinnamon Rubbing Machine RUWEEKA_CG (Patent No. 11869)
			9.6.1.2 RUWEEKA-PG (Ruhuna-Weerasinghe-Karunarathne-Palliaguru)—International Patent Classification A23N 7/10, 11/00 B27J 3/00 Go5G 17/00;patent No. 17342
			9.6.1.3 Cinnamon Processing Bench
	9.7 Cinnamon Process Centers
	References
Chapter 10: Chemistry and Bioactive Compounds of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Extraction of the Essential Oil from Cinnamon
		10.2.1 Steam Distillation Methods
		10.2.2 Modified Likens and Nickerson Apparatus
		10.2.3 Chemical Constituents of Cinnamomum zeylanicum
			10.2.3.1 Chemical Constituents in Essential Oils from Bark, Leaf, Root, and Fruits of Cinnamon (C. zeylanicum Blume) Grown in Sri Lanka
	10.3 Chemical Constituents in Wild Cinnamomum Species in Sri Lanka
		10.3.1 Yield of Essential Oils of Leaf and Bark of True and Wild Cinnamon Species in Sri Lanka
	10.4 Nonvolatile Constituents of C. zeylanicum
		10.4.1 Proanthocyanidins
		10.4.2 Alkaloids, Saponins, and Flavonoids in Ceylon Cinnamon
		10.4.3 Coumarin Content in Ceylon Cinnamon
	References
Chapter 11: Tapping into the Potential of Cinnamon as a Therapeutic Agent in Neurological Disorders and Metabolic Syndrome
	11.1 Cinnamon and Metabolic Syndrome
		11.1.1 The Interrelationship of Metabolic Syndrome and Neurodegenerative Diseases with Focus on Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and the Role of Cinnamon
	11.2 Neurological, Neuromuscular Diseases and Cinnamon
		11.2.1 Role of Nrf2 and NF-κB in Neurodegenerative Disorders and Neuromuscular Diseases
		11.2.2 The Role of Nrf2 and NF-κB in Stroke
	11.3 The Association of Cinnamon and Cancer
	11.4 Cinnamon and Gut Microbes
	11.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12: Pharmacological Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
	12.1 Traditional Health Claims and Medicinal Uses of Ceylon Cinnamon
	12.2 Pharmacological Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.1 Antioxidant Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.2 Anti-diabetic Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.3 Antilipidemic Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.4 Anticancer Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.5 Anti-inflammatory Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.6 Antiarthritic Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.7 Immunomodulatory Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.8 Antibiotic Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
		12.2.9 Anti-nociceptive and Analgesic Properties
		12.2.10 Cardioprotective Properties
		12.2.11 Antihypertensive Properties
		12.2.12 Gastroprotective Properties
		12.2.13 Skin Protection, Whitening and Anti-ageing Properties
		12.2.14 Other Pharmacological Properties of Ceylon Cinnamon
	12.3 Clinical Studies
	12.4 Toxicology of Ceylon Cinnamon
	12.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13: Industrial Applications of Ceylon Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume) as Nutraceuticals and Cosmeceuticals
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Ayurveda
	13.2 True Cinnamon
	13.3 Cinnamon Oil
	13.4 Industrial Applications of Cinnamon
		13.4.1 Aromatherapy
		13.4.2 Nutraceuticals
		13.4.3 Regulatory Requirements
	13.5 Prevention of Diseases
	13.6 Cosmeceuticals
	13.7 Organic Cinnamon
	13.8 Manufacturing Process
	13.9 Research Areas
		13.9.1 Antioxidant Effects
		13.9.2 Anti-inflammatory Effects
		13.9.3 Antidiabetic Effects
		13.9.4 Antibacterial Activity
		13.9.5 Hypolipidemic Effects
		13.9.6 Antifungal Effects
		13.9.7 Possible Cancer Protection Studies
		13.9.8 Hypotensive Effects
		13.9.9 Analgesic Effects
		13.9.10 Cardiovascular Effects
		13.9.11 Products for Neurodegenerative Diseases
		13.9.12 Anti-obesity Effects
		13.9.13 Antipyretic and Analgesic Effects
		13.9.14 Oral Hygiene Uses
		13.9.15 Wound Healing
		13.9.16 Food Preservation
		13.9.17 Skin
	13.10 Global Market Trends
		13.10.1 Cinnamon Market
		13.10.2 Global Nutraceuticals Market
		13.10.3 Global Market Analysis for Cosmeceuticals
		13.10.4 Global Aromatherapy Products Market
	13.11 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 14: Public-Private Partnership in Growth and Development of Cinnamon Industry in Sri Lanka
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Private Sector
	14.3 Private Sector Entities in Cinnamon Industry
		14.3.1 Involvement of Private Sector in the Cinnamon Industry
	14.4 Public Sector
	14.5 National Drive Toward PPP
	14.6 Definitions for PPP
	14.7 Importance of PPP Initiatives
	14.8 Motivation for Engaging in PPPs
	14.9 Prerequisites for Successful Public-Private Partnership
	14.10 Unique PPP Endeavors to Elevate the Ceylon Cinnamon Subsector
		14.10.1 Training and Capacity Building of Cinnamon Value Chain Actors
		14.10.2 Ceylon Cinnamon: A Roadmap Toward Its Protection as Geographical Indication
		14.10.3 Enhancing the Compliance and Productive Capacities and Competitiveness of the Cinnamon Value Chains in Sri Lanka
		14.10.4 Branding of Pure Ceylon Cinnamon
		14.10.5 The Spices and Concentrates Strategy
		14.10.6 Adoption of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
		14.10.7 Increasing Trade Competitiveness of Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Regional and European Union Markets
	14.11 International Experiences in Agribusiness PPPs
	14.12 Challenges and Opportunities
	14.13 Way Forward
	References
Chapter 15: Value Creation and Food Products of Cinnamon
	15.1 Value Creation
		15.1.1 Addition of Actual Value
		15.1.2 Addition of Perceived Value
	15.2 Types of Cinnamon Application
		15.2.1 Products of Food Industry
			15.2.1.1 Cinnamon as a Spice
			15.2.1.2 Bakery Products with Cinnamon
			15.2.1.3 Cinnamon Beverages
				Tea with Cinnamon
			15.2.1.4 Cinnamon Alcoholic Beverages
			15.2.1.5 Cinnamon Applications in Chewing Gum
			15.2.1.6 Cinnamon as a Natural Food Preservative
			15.2.1.7 Cinnamon Chocolate
		15.2.2 Personal and Home Care Products of Cinnamon
	References
Chapter 16: Cinnamon Value Chain Dynamics and Enhancement
	16.1 Introduction
		16.1.1 Value Chain
	16.2 Value Chain Analysis: A Case of Ceylon Cinnamon
		16.2.1 Cinnamon Processors
		16.2.2 Middlemen (Collectors/Traders)
		16.2.3 Exporters
	16.3 Export Competitiveness
	16.4 Value Chain Mapping
		16.4.1 Volume Flow
		16.4.2 Value Flow: Price
		16.4.3 Flow of Relationships and Linkages
		16.4.4 Safety Quality Flow
	16.5 Influence of Internal and External Factors on the Value Addition and Innovation Perspective of Ceylon Cinnamon Exporters and Growers
	16.6 Governance Mechanism of the Cinnamon Value Chain
	16.7 Information Flow
	16.8 Gender in Cinnamon Value Chain
	16.9 Micro Perspective for the Cinnamon Industry
	16.10 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 17: Planning and Strategic Policy Interventions for Building a Globally Competitive Cinnamon Industry in Sri Lanka
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Cinnamon Situation Analysis: Production and Uses
	17.3 Cinnamon Situation Analysis: Trade
	17.4 Standards for Cinnamon Exports
	17.5 Quality Requirements of Cinnamon
		17.5.1 Product and Process Standards Relevant to Cinnamon
			17.5.1.1 Importance of Complying with Quality Standards
		17.5.2 Branding of Ceylon Cinnamon
	17.6 Way Forward
		17.6.1 Strategies to Increase Cinnamon Production
		17.6.2 Need for Quality Assurance
		17.6.3 Government Support to Obtain GI
		17.6.4 Diversification of Processing Methods
	17.7 Strategic Policy Planning for Cinnamon
	Annex 1
		Cinnamon: SWOT Analysis for the Industry
			Strengths
			Weaknesses
			Opportunities
			Threats
	References
Index