Church History, Volume Two: From Pre-Reformation to the Present Day: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context

Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents In Brief
Contents
About the Authors
Maps, Charts, and Illustrations
Preface
1. European Christianity In an Age of Adversity, Renaissance, and Discovery (1300 – 1500)
	I. Introduction
	II. A Pivotal Time of Struggle Within and Outside of the Church
		A. The Epochal Tragedies of Massive Deaths
		B. The Papacy: Plunged Into a State of Crisis
		C. The Political Order In Europe
		D. The “Babylonian Captivity of the Church”
		E. The Social and Economic Order
	III. The Great Schism (1378 – 1417)
		A. The Conciliar Movement
		B. The Council of Constance: Healing the Schism
		C. The Trial and Execution of John Hus
	IV. The Reform of the Church
		A. The Papal Struggle Against the Conciliar Movement
		B. A Union of the Western and Eastern Churches
		C. Pope Pius II and Blunting the Conciliar Movement
	V. The Renaissance Popes
		A. Refurbishing Rome
		B. A Problem of Reputation
		C. The Practice of Roman Catholicism In Italy
	VI. “The Age of Discovery”
		A. The Rise of the Ottoman Empire
		B. The Russian Church
		C. Religious Persecution In the Age of Discovery
		D. The Glory of the Age of Discovery
	VII. Conclusion
	For Further Study
2. The Renaissance and the Christian Faith
	I. Introduction
	II. The Renaissance: The Discovery of the World and the Discovery of Man?
		A. Petrarch: “The First Renaissance Man”?
		B. Coluccio Salutati: Christianity and the Liberal Arts Conjoined
		C. The Quest to Return to Original Manuscript Sources
		D. Lorenzo Valla: Humanism and the Goodness of Man
		E. Marsilio Ficino: The Platonic Academy
		F. Pico della Mirandola: On the Dignity of Man
		G. Humanistic Studies
		H. The Renaissance: Critics and Partisans
	III. The “Northern Renaissance”
		A. Erasmus and Paracelsus: On the Brink of the Reformation
		B. Christian Hebraism
	IV. Renaissance Men and Women
	V. Conclusion
	For Further Study
3. Luther’s Reformation: A Conscience Unbound
	I. Luther’s Theological Evolution
		A. The Monastic Life
		B. The Evangelical Breakthrough
		C. The Indulgences Controversy
		D. The Sacrament of Penance
	II. From Controversy to Reformation
		A. The October Revolution of 1517 (Ninety-Five Theses)
		B. The Heidelberg Disputation (1518)
		C. Encountering the Power of Rome
		D. The Leipzig Disputation (1519)
		E. The New Holy Roman Emperor
		F. Luther’s Growing Defiance
		G. The Diet of Worms (April 1521)
		H. The Wartburg Castle: Luther’s Patmos
		I. Luther’s Collaborators In Reformation
	III. The Social and Political Impact of the Reformation
		A. Wittenberg Chaos
		B. The Peasants Revolt (1524 – 25)
		C. Reformation and Political Realignment
		D. The Schmalkald War
		E. The Reformation of Marriage
		F. The Reformation of Poor Relief
	IV. The Dark Side of Luther
		A. Philip’s Bigamy
		B. Anti-Semitism
		C. Luther’s Death
	V. Lutheranism After Luther
	For Further Study
4. The Swiss Reformations: The Maturation of International Calvinism (16th Century)
	I. The Swiss Confederation
	II. Ulrich Zwingli and Zürich
		A. Zwingli and Humanism
		B. Zwingli and Swiss Mercenaries
		C. Zwingli and the Plague
		D. The Politics of Reform
		E. Zwingli and the Radicals
		F. The Marburg Colloquy
		G. Death In Battle
		H. Zwingli and Heinrich Bullinger
	III. John Calvin and Geneva
		A. An Accidental Reformer
		B. Calvin’s Early Life
		C. Calvin’s Conversion
		D. Calvin and Geneva
		E. Calvin and Strasbourg
		F. Calvin Returns to Geneva
	IV. Calvin and Doctrinal Disputation
		A. Calvin the Pastor
		B. Calvin Against the Libertines
		C. Calvin and Servetus
		D. Calvin and Luther
		E. Calvin the Ecclesiastical Politician
		F. Calvin the Theologian
		G. Calvin and Evangelism
		H. Calvin and Missions
	V. Calvin’s Legacy
		A. Calvin’s Death
		B. Calvin’s Endowment
		C. Wars of Religion
	For Further Study
5. Radicals and Rome: Responses to the Magisterial Reformation (16th Century)
	I. Prologue
		A. Social Upheaval
		B. Disappointment With Luther
	II. The Revolutionary Road
		A. Reformers and Revolutionaries
		B. Radicals and Anabaptists
		C. Monogenesis and Polygenesis
	III. The Many Faces of Revolt
		A. Archetypal Antibaptists
		B. Spiritualists
	IV. Revolutionaries
		A. Melchiorites
		B. The Radical Kingdom of Münster
		C. Menno Simons the Anti-Revolutionary
		D. Rationalists
		E. The Triumph of Anabaptism
	V. Catholic Riposte
		A. Prohibition and Inquisition
		B. The Jesuits
	VI. The Council of Trent
		A. The Nineteenth General Church Council
		B. Politics and Prelates
		C. Scripture and Tradition
		D. Justification
		E. Sacraments
		F. Ecclesial Reform
	VII. The Spirit of the Catholic Counter-Reformation
		A. The Persistence of Pius V
		B. Tridentine Piety
	VIII. Pondering the Reformation Aftermath
	For Further Study
6. Reformations In England: The Politics of Reform (16th Century)
	I. Introduction
	II. Henry VIII’s Reformation
		A. A Male Heir
		B. Reform Triumvirate In the King’s Court
		C. The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn
		D. Dalliance With Lutherans
		E. Conservative Retaliation
		F. Progressives Regaining the King’s Favor
	III. Edward VI’s Reformation
		A. Protestantism Restored
		B. The Ascent of Edward Seymour
		C. Thomas Cranmer’s Reformation
		D. Death of the Boy King
	IV. Mary I’s Restoration
		A. John Dudley’s Folly
		B. The Return of Catholicism
		C. Marian Persecution
		D. Cranmer’s Last Stand
	V. Elizabeth I’s Reformation
		A. The Elizabethan Settlement
		B. English Catholicism
		C. The Puritans
	VI. Foreign Affairs
		A. France
		B. Spain
		C. The Armada
		D. Ireland
		E. Mary Queen of Scots
		F. The Final Days of the Virgin Queen
	VII. Reflections On the English Reformation
	For Further Study
7. Refining the Reformation: Theological Currents In the Seventeenth Century
	I. Historical Arc
		A. Religious Wars
		B. Catholic Orthodoxy
		C. Protestant Orthodoxy
	II. Theological Polemics
		A. Arminianism
		B. Amyraldism
		C. Jansenism
	III. Theological Renewal In German Pietism
		A. Phillip Jakob Spener
		B. August Hermann Francke
		C. Theology of the Pious
		D. The Pietist Legacy
	IV. Theological Renewal In English Puritanism
		A. From Tudor to Stuart
		B. Stumbling Toward Civil War
		C. Revolt In Scotland
		D. Revolt In Parliament
		E. The English Civil War
		F. Pride’s Purge
		G. From Commonwealth to Restoration
	V. Puritanism In New England
		A. From Tolerance to Intolerance
		B. Roger Williams
		C. The Hutchinson Controversy
		D. Mary Dyer
		E. The Salem Witch Trials
		F. The New England Legacy
	VI. Puritan Theological Trajectories
		A. The Westminster Assembly
		B. Purified Theology
		C. Reformed Theology
		D. Covenantal Theology
		E. Sabbatarianism
		F. Conversional Piety
		G. Political Theology
	VII. Theological Confluences: Puritanism, Pietism, and Nadere Reformatie
		A. Puritanism
		B. Pietism
		C. Quietism
		D. Nadere Reformatie
	VIII. Conclusion
	For Further Study
8. Christianity In an Age of Fear, Crisis, and Exploration (17th Century)
	I. Introduction
		A. The Scourge of Massive Deaths
		B. Revolts and Revolutionaries
	II. New Ways of Thinking, the “Shock of Discovery,” and the “New World”
		A. Commerce, Culture, and Christianity
		B. The Americas
	III. The Political and Religious Situation In 1598
		A. The Politics of the Time
		B. The Papacy: Stability Regained
	IV. European Protestantism In Jeopardy?
		A. France
		B. The Hapsburgs
		C. Poland, Lithuania, and Ukraine
	V. The Thirty Years War: A Religious-Secular Conflict?
	VI. The Seventeenth Century: A Culturally “Christian Age”?
		A. “Popular Religion” (The Religion of the People)
		B. Reforming Popular Culture
	VII. Conclusion
	For Further Study
9. Christianity and the Question of Authority (17th Century)
	I. Introduction
	II. Doing Someone Else’s Will
		A. The Web of Hierarchical Relations
		B. The Three Estates
		C. The Authority of Divine Right Kings
		D. Louis XIV and “Absolute Monarchy”
	III. Forms of Government: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy
		A. Republics: Nurseries of Revolt?
		B. The Jansenists and Authority
	IV. Scripture and Tradition As Authorities
		A. Roman Catholic Tradition
		B. Protestant Confessions and Scripture’s Authority
		C. The Authority of Editions of Scripture
		D. The Struggle Over the Interpretation of Scripture
		E. The Authority of the Church
	V. The Increased Authority of “Science”
		A. The Scientific Revolution
		B. Copernicus and Kepler and the Bible
		C. The Trial of Galileo
		D. Isaac de la Peyrère, Science, and Biblical Authority
	VI. The Authority of Philosophy
		A. “All Truth Is God’s Truth”: The Quest for an Authoritative Christian Worldview
		B. The Dreaded Authority of the Ottoman Turks
		C. Patriarchal Authority In Family Life
	VII. Conclusion
	For Further Study
10. Christianity Under Duress: The Age of Lights (1680 – 1789)
	I. Introduction
	II. The “Age of Lights” or “Age of Reason”: Origins
		A. An “Enlightenment” Prelude: 1680 – 1715
		B. Isaac Newton: Christianity Compatible With Nature’s “Laws”
		C. Richard Simon and Biblical Criticism
		D. John Locke and a “New” View of Human Nature
		E. Pierre Bayle: Christianity and Skepticism
	III. The “Enlightenment”: The French Philosophes
		A. Baron de Montesquieu
		B. Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Civilization Versus Nature
		C. Denis Diderot and the Philosophie Atheists
		D. The Siècle des Lumières and the French Revolution
	For Further Study
11. Christianity In the Age of Lights (1): The British Isles (1680 – 1789)
	I. Introduction
	II. British Society: “Polite” and Affluent — Harsh and Poor
	III. The Anglicans
		A. The Archbishops of Canterbury
		B. “Enthusiasm”
		C. Archbishop William Blake
		D. Latitudinarians
	IV. The Dissenters
		A. Baptists: General and Particular
		B. The Evangelicals
	V. The Evangelical Revival of the Methodists
		A. John and Charles Wesley
		B. The Methodist Revival
		C. George Whitefield and the Calvinist Methodists
		D. The Reformed Methodists
	VI. Roman Catholics
	VII. Christian Responses to Deism
	VIII. Scotland
	IX. Ireland
	X. The Enduring Presence of Christianity In the British Isles
	For Further Study
12. Christianity In the Age of Lights (2): The Kingdom of France (1680 – 1789)
	I. Introduction
	II. The French Kings
		A. Divine Right Monarchs
		B. Louis XIV and the Gallican Catholic Church
	III. The Struggle Between the Jansenists and Jesuits
		A. Jansenism and Religious and Political Conflicts
		B. The Damiens Affair
	IV. Gallican Catholicism and the Siècle des Lumières
	V. Protestants
	VI. Conclusion
	For Further Study
13. Christianity In the Age of Lights (3): The Continent of Europe (1680 – 1789)
	I. Introduction
	II. “Germany” and the Holy Roman Empire
		A. Brandenburg-Prussia
		B. The Pietists: Bible Study, Reform, and World Missions
			1. Radical Pietists
			2. The Moravians
		C. German Christians and the Aufklärung
		D. The Neologians
		E. Johann Salomo Semler: The Founder of German Higher Criticism
		F. Johann Philipp Gabler and Biblical Theology
		G. Frederick William II and the Censorship Edict
	III. Scandinavia
	IV. The United Providences
	V. The Republic of Geneva
	VI. The Austrian Hapsburgs
	VII. “Italy” and the Papacy
	VIII. The Iberian Peninsula: Spain and Portugal
		A. Spain
		B. Portugal
	IX. Christians In Ottoman Turkish Lands
	X. The Patriarchate of Moscow, the Uniate Church, and Cyril Lucaris
	XI. The Emergence of Russia As a European Power
	XII. Conclusion
	For Further Study
14. Christianity In an Age of Revolutions (1770 – 1848)
	I. Introduction
		A. The Fall of the Bastille: July 14, 1789
		B. Interpreting the French Revolution
		C. The Contested Role of the “Bourgeoisie”
	II. Revolutions: “Western Democratic,” “Socialist,” and “Marxist”
		A. Democratic Revolutions
		B. Defining a Revolution
	III. The French Revolution: Religious Origins?.
		A. French Christians and the Revolution
		B. The Terror
		C. The Dechristianization Campaign
		D. The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory (1794 – 99)
	IV. Contemporary Assessments of the French Revolution
	V. Napoleon, Revolution, and Empire (1799 – 1815)
	VI. Restoration and the Congress of Vienna
	VII. Revolutions from 1815 to 1832
		A. The Greek Struggle for Independence
		B. The French Revolution of 1830
		C. The Belgium Revolt (1830)
		D. Poland and Russia: The Suppression of Revolutions
	VIII. Labor Unrest and Revolutions (1832 – 48)
		A. The Revolutions of 1848
		B. France
		C. Germany
		D. The Papacy and Revolutions In Italy (1848)
	IX. Conclusion
	For Further Study
15. Adjusting to Modernization and Secularism: The Rise of Protestant Liberalism (1799 – 1919)
	I. Introduction
	II. “Modernization”: A Controversial Concept
		A. The Impact of Modernization On Nineteenth-Century Europe
		B. The Industrial Revolution, Modernization, and the Projection of European Power
		C. Modernization and Democratic Revolutions
		D. Modernity and the Rise of “Natural Knowledge” and “Secularism”
		E. Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species
		F. Atheistic Attacks On the Christian Faith
		G. The Coining of the Words Secularization, Secularism, Agnostic, Eugenics, and Anti-Semitic
	III. Interacting With Modernization and Modernity
		A. Bishop Samuel Wilberforce: God the Author of the Book of Nature and Scripture
		B. Darwinism and the Search for Truth
	IV. The Rise of Protestant Liberalism
		A. Friedrich Schleiermacher: The Emergence of “Modern Theology”
		B. German Biblical Critics and Liberal Theology
		C. The Tübingen School: D. F. Strauss and F. C. Baur
		D. Albrecht Ritschl and the Kingdom of God
		E. Adolf von Harnack and What Is Christianity?
		F. Louis Auguste Sabatier: The Christian Faith Adjusted to Modernity
	V. Conclusion: The Waning of European Protestant Liberalism
	For Further Study
16. Nineteenth-Century Christianity In the British Isles: Renewal, Missions, and the Crisis of Faith
	I. Introduction
	II. Britain’s Dominance As an Empire Builder
		A. Western “Christian” Civilization
		B. The Perilous Lives of the Poor
		C. The Emergence of the “Modern State”
		D. Religious Currents In British Life 1789 – 1837
		E. Religion and Romanticism
		F. Societal Unrest
	III. Anglican Renewal and Debate
		A. The Oxford (Tractarian) Movement
		B. The Evangelical Anglicans
		C. Evangelical Identity
		D. Anglican Social Reformers
		E. Cambridge University: The Ministry of Charles Simeon
		F. Dissenters (Non-Conformists)
		G. Roman Catholics: An Expansion of Influence
	IV. Protestant Christian Missions
		A. The Pioneering Role of William Carey
		B. David Livingstone: Missionary Explorer
		C. Mary Slessor: “Mother of All Peoples”
		D. Hudson Taylor: “Faith Missions”
		E. “The Evangelization of the World In This Generation” (1900)
	V. Religion In the Victorian Age (1837 – 1901)
		A. Church Divisions and Spiritual Renewal In Scotland
		B. Wales: “Land of Revivals”
		C. Ireland: Religious Tensions Over “Home Rule” and “Union” With England
		D. Charles Spurgeon: “The Prince of All Preachers”
		E. Christian Social Reformers In the Victorian Era
		F. The Salvation Army
		G. The Sunday School Movement and Public Education
		H. Victorian Morals and Domesticity
		I. Victorian Religion and a “Crisis of Faith”
		J. The Christian Faith and “Modern” Scholarship
		K. Attacks Against the Doctrine of Biblical Infallibility
	VI. Conclusion
	For Further Study
17. The Christian Churches On the European Continent (1814 – 1914)
	I. Introduction
	II. The Restoration of the Roman Papacy
		A. The Papacy and the Birth of Modern Italy
		B. The Pontificate of Pius IX
	III. The Papacy Buffeted By Winds of Cultural and Political Change
		A. Pius IX and the Syllabus of Errors
		B. Vatican Council I: The Infallibility of the Pope
		C. Pope Leo XIII: Accommodating “Modern” Culture?
		D. Leo XIII’s Encyclical Providentissimus Deus
		E. Catholic Modernism (1890 – 1910)
	IV. Spiritual Awakening and Confessional Renewal In Northern Europe (1780–1850)
		A. Søren Kierkegaard
		B. Norway, Sweden, and Finland
		C. The Spiritual Awakening and “Awakened” German Academics
		D. The Christian Churches and the Birth of “Modern Germany”
		E. The Netherlands
		F. Abraham Kuyper
	V. The French Churches: Protestant Restoration, Revival, and Theological Disputes
		A. Roman Catholicism, the State, and Secularism
		B. Radical Republicanism, the “Commune,” and Anticlericalism
	VI. Expanding Christianity to the Far Corners of the Earth
		A. The Scramble for Colonies and Western Missionaries
		B. Missions to the Far East: Japan, China, and Korea
		C. Western Missions and the Boxer Rebellion In China
		D. French Secular Education and the Dreyfus Affair
		E. The Iberian Peninsula: Spain and Portugal
		F. Brazil and Portugal
	VII. Central Europe
		A. The “Polish Question”
		B. The Decline of the Ottoman Empire
	VIII. The Russian Empire and the Russian Orthodox Church
		A. Reassessing Russian Church Life (1800 – 1917)
		B. Dostoevsky and Tolstoy: Perceptive Analysts of the Human Condition
		C. Religion In the Twilight of the Tsarist Romanov Dynasty
		D. The Russian Revolution of 1905 – 7
		E. Eastern Orthodox Christian Churches and Ottoman Rule
		F. The Creation of Independent, Nationalist Orthodox Churches
	IX. Conclusion
	For Further Study
18. Global Christianity: A Re-Centered Faith (20th and 21st Centuries)
	I. Introduction
	II. New Centers of Global Christianity
		A. Africa
		B. China
		C. India
		D. Latin America
	III. The Rise of Pentecostalism
	IV. Missions to America
	V. Post-Christian Europe
	VI. Conclusion
	For Further Study
19. Modern Theological Trajectories: Spiraling Into the Third Millennium (20th and 21st Centuries)
	I. Prologue: Historical Context
	II. The New Theological Referent: Neo-Orthodoxy
		A. Karl Barth
		B. Engaging Barth
			1. Emil Brunner
			2. Rudolf Bultmann
			3. Reinhold Niebuhr
			4. Dietrich Bonhoeffer
			5. The Roman Catholic Response to Barth
			6. The Evangelical Response to Barth
	III. New Theological Elaborations
		A. Eschatological Theology
			1. Jürgen Moltmann
			2. Wolfhart Pannenberg
		B. Post-Liberal Theology
			1. Hans Frei
			2. George Lindbeck
	IV. New Alternative Theological Trajectories
		A. God As the Ground of Being
		B. Death-of-God Theology
		C. Secular Theology
	V. Liberation Theologies
		A. Latin American Liberation Theology
		B. Black Liberation Theology
		C. Feminist Liberation Theology
	VI. Process Theology
		A. Alfred North Whitehead
		B. John Cobb
	VII. Contextual Theologies
		A. Africa
		B. Asia
			1. Water Buffalo Theology
			2. Minjung Theology
			3. Dalit Theology
			4. Third-Eye Theology
			5. Pain of God Theology
		C. Implications of Non-Western Approaches to Theology
	VIII. Post-Vatican II Theological Trajectories
	IX. The New Atheism
		A. Conventional Atheism
		B. The New Atheism
	X. Conclusion
	For Further Study
20. Catholicism and Orthodoxy: Collision to Collegiality (20th and 21st Centuries)
	I. Eastern Orthodoxy
		A. The Russian Revolution
		B. Glasnost and Gorbachov
		C. Global Orthodoxy
		D. Orthodox Diaspora
		E. Evangelicals and Orthodoxy
	II. Roman Catholicism
		A. Historical Arc
		B. The First Vatican Council
		C. Persecution of Catholics
		D. World War I
		E. World War II
		F. The Second Vatican Council
	III. Ecumenism
		A. Theological Dialogue
		B. Social Thought
		C. Pope John Paul II
		D. Roman Catholicism In America
		E. Evangelicals and Catholics
	IV. Roman Catholic Challenges Today and Tomorrow
		A. Pope Benedict XVI
		B. Catholicism and Sexual Abuse
		C. Pope Francis
		D. The Illusive Future of Catholicism
	For Further Study
21. Contemporary American Evangelicalism: Permutations and Progressions (20th and 21st Centuries)
	I. Prologue
	II. Fundamentalism
		A. Higher Criticism
		B. Infallibility and Princeton
		C. Common Sense Realism
		D. The Modernist-Fundamentalist Controversy
		E. Dispensational Premillennialism
		F. Darwinian Evolution
		G. Fundamentalist Fragmentation
	III. Neo-Evangelicalism
		A. Harold John Ockenga
		B. Carl F. H. Henry
		C. Billy Graham
	IV. Postmodern Evangelicalism
		A. A Cultural Paradigm Shift
		B. Post-Conservative Politics
		C. Social Justice and the Gospel
		D. Evolving Ecclesiology
		E. The Church As Mission
		F. The Role of Women In the Church
		G. The Decline of Denominationalism
		H. Ethnic Minorities
			1. African Americans
			2. Latinos
			3. Asians
	V. Post-Evangelical Evangelicals
	For Further Study
22. Christianity and Islam: The Challenge of the Future (21st Century)
	I. Christianity On the Horizon
	II. 2001: A Religious Odyssey
	III. Religions In Conflict
		A. The First 1,400 Years
		B. Petro-Islam
		C. Arab-Israeli Conflict
		D. The “Great Satan”
	IV. The Devil In the Demographics
		A. 10/40 Christian Provocation
		B. The Conflict Within Islam
	V. A Concluding Coda
	For Further Study
General Bibliography
Index