Chronological Developments in the Old Kingdom Tombs in the Necropoleis of Giza, Saqqara and Abusir: Toward an Economic Decline during the Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
List of Figures
Bibliography and Bibliographical Abbreviations
Part I: Various Chronological Developmentsof Dimensional Aspects of the Tombs in the Necropolis of Giza
	Introduction
		II. The purpose of this study
	Chapter One: Preliminary Considerations
		I. A concise history of the development of the non-royal funerary architecture
		Introduction
		II. Experiments in funerary tradition during the reigns of Snefru and Khufu
			II.1. The layout of non-royal cemeteries
			II.2. Tomb architecture
		III. About climate change
			III.1. Environmental consequences of climate change
			III.2. Climate change and chapel decoration
		IV. About chronology
			IV.1. The chronological order of the kings of the old kingdom
			IV.2. Considerations concerning the dating of tombs
		V. About the tombs included in the catalogues
			Introduction
	Chapter Two: The Necropolis of Giza
		I. The necropolis before the fourth dynasty
		II. The Necropolis of Giza until the end of the fourth dynasty
	Chapter Three: The Chronological Development of the Number of False Doors
		I. Introduction
		II. The Percentage of Tombs with Chapels with two or more False Doors
		III. Discussion per period
	Chapter Four: The Chronological Development of the Dimensions of the Tombs and Their Chapels.Part I
		I. Data management and methodology.
		II. the surface of the tomb versus the surface of its chapel
	Chapter Five: The Chronological Developments in the Dimensions of the Tombs and Their Chapels.Part II
		The dimensions of tombs and chapels
		II. The surface ranges of richer and poorer tombs
	Chapter Six:The Chronological Development of the Number of False Doors in Relation to the Dimensions of the Tomb
		I. Introduction
		II. The number of false doors in relation to the dichotomy between “richer” and “poorer” tombs
		III. Discussion
	Chapter Seven: Discussion, Analyses and Conclusions in Relation to the Necropolis of Giza
		I. Introduction
		II. Richer and poorer funerary monuments
		III. Secondary burials
		IV. The false doors
		V. Preliminary conclusions
Figure 1. Three types of “rich” mortuary monuments: a royal pyramid, a queens’ pyramid and the mastaba of a member of the royal family or of the highest non-royal social stratum (Giza, eastern field) (photo author).
Figure 2. Entrance of the tomb of WAS-ptH (PM, III/1, 273; Hassan, Giza II, plate IV).
Figure 3. Entrance of the tomb of Mrrw-kA.j. (PM, III/2, 525–34; Photo: www.wikepedia, Mereruka, Saqqara).
Figure 4. Decoration northern entrance thickness of the mastaba of SSAt-Htp. (PM. III/1, 149–50; Junker, Giza II, fig. 25 (page 180)).
Figure 5. Large mastaba with palace facade panelling (1st dynasty).
Figure 6. The remains of an exterior mud-brick chapel (Junker, Giza I, plate XXXIIIa).
Figure 7 Exterior chapel with L-shaped offering room
Figure 8 Interior L-shaped offering room with exterior mud-brick chapel
Figure 10. Plan chapel of PtH-Htp; D 51; PM, III/2, 581-2; dating IV.L – V.E. (after Mariette, Mastabas, 314-6).
Figure 11. Plan chapel of Nxft-kA.j, (PM, PM III/2, 580-1)
Figure 9. Plan chapel of Axtj-Htp; PM, III/2, 453, A 1, dating IV.E. (after Mariette, Mastabas, 67-70).
Figure 12 Plan chapel of Snnw-anx, (PM, III/2, 582)
Figure 13. Plan of chapel of Ḫnw; PM, III/2, 488-9; dating V.L – VE. (after Mariette, Mastabas, 184-6).
Figure 14. Plan of chapel of KA.j-m-nfrt; PM, III/2, 467-8; dating V.M/L (after Mariette, Mastabas, 242-9).
Figure 15. Morgan’s “Mastabas du Sud” (detail of the plan of the necropolis of Dahshur).
Figure 16. Time scale Neolithic and Old Kingdom
Figure 17. Scene in the mastaba of MrrwkA.j, (PM, III/2, 525–34)
Figure 18. The chronological division of the Old Kingdom (after Harper, DETOK, 34).56
Figure 19. A field of stone built mastabas at Giza (Junker, Giza, VII, plate Ia).
Figure 20. Rock-cut tombs at Giza (photo author).
Figure 21. Western wall of the chapel in the mastaba of KA.j-swDA (G 5340; PM, III/1, 159); (Junker, Giza VII, plate XXXIVa).
Figure 22. Plan of the chapel of MTn; LS 6; PM, III/2, 493–4; IV.E. (after LD, II, 3–7).
Figure 24. Plan of a rock-cut tomb with a separate chapel.(after Reisner, Giza I, Figure. 144)
Figure 25. Plan of a corridor chapel with  a narrow recess. (after Junker, Giza XI, Figure 23).
Figure 26. Plan of the eastern exterior wall of the mastaba of SSAt-Htp (after Kanawati, Giza II, plate 39).
Figure 27. Plan of an exterior chapel with one offering place (false door).(after Reisner, Giza I, Figure 109).
Figure 28. Plan of an exterior chapel with one offering place (slab stele).(after Reisner, Giza I, Figure 95).
Figure 29. Plan of the Old Kingdom necropolis of Giza including the southern part of the Plateau
Figure 30. Plan of the Old Kingdom necropolis of Giza at the end of the 4th dynasty.
Figure 31. Satellite photo of the Giza Plateau
Figure 32. The quarry wall west of the pyramid of Rakhaef (IV.4) with rock-cut tombs. (Photo author).
Figure 33. Satellite photo of the pyramid of Radjedef at Abu Rawash
Figure 34. Western cemetery (schematic)
Figure 35. Mastaba with the placement of a slab stele and cult utensils in front of it (G 4360)
Figure 37. A libation basin together with a statue of the tomb owner in front of the false door in the tomb of Axtj-mrw-nswt (PM, III/1, 80-1) (ASAE, 13-14 (1914), Plate 11b).
Figure 38. The chronological development of the percentage of chapels with two or more false doors
Figure 39. The tombs in cemetery F of Abu Rawash.
Figure 40. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.E, cemetery F, Abu Rawash.36
Figure 41. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.L, cemetery F, Abu Rawash.
Figure 42. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.E, cemetery F, Abu Rawash.
Figure 43. Necropolis F at Abu Rawash
Figure 45. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.E, Giza.
Figure 46. Length/width chapel diagram, period IV.E, Giza.
Figure 47. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.L, Giza.
Figure 48. Plan of the rock-cut chapel of  KAw-nswt, (PM, III/1, 274)
Figure 50. Length/width chapel diagram, period IV.L, Giza
Figure 51. Tombs with diverging dimensions, Giza.
Figure 52. Surface tomb/chapel diagram of tombs with diverging dimensions, Giza.
Figure 54. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.E, Giza.
Figure 55. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.E, Giza.
Figure 56. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.M, Giza.
Figure 57. The tomb of ḎfA-nwst, (PM, III/1, 265)
Figure 58. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.M, Giza.
Figure 59. The chapel of Jtj-sn; PM, III/1, 252‒3.
Figure 60. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.L, Giza.
Figure 61. The development of the corridor chapel of G 2093 (after Roth, Gmast 6, Figure 6).
Figure 62. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.L, Giza
Figure 63. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period VI, Giza.
Figure 64. Length/width chapel diagram, period VI, Giza.
Figure 65. Tomb and chapel surface value spread for richer and poorer tombs.
Figure 66. Derivative values of the tomb and chapel surface spread for richer tombs.
Figure 69. Chronological development of the surface of poorer tombs
Figure 70. The range of the surface of richer and poorer tombs
Figure 71. The range of the chapel surface of richer and poorer tombs.
Figure 72. Compilation of the surface ranges of richer and poorer tombs.
Figure 73. Tomb surface versus chapel surface as a percentage of the former.
Figure 74. The percentage of richer tombs with two or more false doors.
Figure 75. The percentage of poorer tombs with two or more false doors
Figure 76. A possible chronological development of the surface of tombs
Figure 77. Another possible chronological development of the surface of tombs
Figure 78. A possible chronological development of the surface of tombs from period V.E on
Figure 79. Intrusive burials (Junker, Giza VII, plate III).
Figure 80. Intrusive burials (Junker, Giza I, XXXIII.b).
Figure 81. The percentage of chapels with two or more false doors (after Figure 38). Adapted to the developments in Figures 74 and 75.
Figure 82. An intrusive burial with two false doors in the necropolis of Giza. (Junker, Giza V, plate XIVa ).
Figure 83. An intrusive burial with one false door in the necropolis of Giza. (photo author).
Figure 84. The plan of the Memphite necropoleis.(after K. Baedecker, Egypt, Manuel du Voyageur (Paris, 1903), 188.
Part IIThe Necropoleis of Abusir and Saqqara.A Verification of the Chronological Tendencies in the Necropolis of Giza
	Chapter Eight: The Necropolis of Saqqara
		I. The chronological development of the necropolis of Saqqara
		II. The Chronological Development of the Employment of the Various Types of Chapels in the Necropoleis of Saqqara and Giza
	Chapter Nine: Various Chronological Developments in the Necropolis of Saqqara
		I. Introduction
		II. The percentage of tombs with two or more false doors in the chapel
		III. The dimensions of tombs and chapels
		iV. The surface of richer and poorer tombs and their chapels
		V. The tombs at Saqqara-north from the 1st to the 4th dynasty
		Appendix IX.1. the equivalence of two types of cloud-diagrams
	Chapter Ten: The Tombs in the Necropolis of Abusir
		I. Introduction
		II. Discussion of the tombs in the necropolis of Abusir
		III. Dating versus tomb dimensions
		IV. The application of the dating check
		V. Further chronological developments of tombs in the necropolis of abusir
Figure 85. Plan of North Saqqara necropolis (after JEA , 60 (1974), 15, Figure 1).
Figure 86. Plan of Middle  Saqqara necropolis (PM, III/2, plan XLI)
Figure 87. Plan of South Saqqara necropolis (PM, III/2, plan XLI).
Figure 88. The chronological development of the chapel types in the necropolis of Saqqara.
Figure 89. The chronological development of the chapel types in the necropolis of Giza.
Figure 90 Percentage of chapels with two or more false doors
Figure 91. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV, Saqqara.
Figure 92. Length/width chapel diagram, period IV, Saqqara.
Figure 93. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.E, Saqqara.
Figure 94. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.M, Saqqara.
Figure 95. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.M, Saqqara.
Figure 96. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.M, Saqqara with the introduction of the corridor chapel
Figure 97. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.L, Saqqara.
Figure 98. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.L, Saqqara (detail of Figure 97)
Figure 99. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.L, Saqqara.
Figure 100. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period VI, Saqqara.
Figure 101. Length/width chapel diagram, period VI, Saqqara.
Figure 102. Tomb and chapel surface spread for richer and poorer tombs.
Figure 103. Derivative values of the tomb and chapel surface spread for richer tombs.
Figure 104. Chronological development of the surface of richer tombs.
Figure 105. Chronological development of the chapel surface of richer tombs.
Figure 106. Derivative values of the tomb and chapel surface spread for poorer tombs.
Figure 107. Surface of tomb and chapel without distinction between poor or rich.
Figure 108. Comparison of the width of chapels in tombs in Giza and Saqqara.
Figure 109. Tomb length/width diagram, Saqqara, 1st dynasty.
Figure 110. Tomb length/width diagram, Saqqara, 2nd dynasty.
Figure 111. Tomb length/width diagram, Saqqara, 3rd dynasty.
Figure 112. Tomb surface 1st – 6th dynasty, Saqqara.
Figure 113. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.L, Giza.
Figure 114. Tomb length/width diagram, period IV.L, Giza.
Figure 115 Plan of South Abusir Cemetery
Figure 116. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV – V.E, Abusir.
Figure 117. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.L, Abusir.
Figure 118. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.L, Abusir and Saqqara.
Figure 119. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period VI, Abusir.
Figure 120. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period III – V.L, Abusir
Figure 121. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.M - VI, Abusir.
Figure 122. The mastaba of vizier qAr.
Figure 123. Tombs “Cemetery of Nobles” introduced in Figure 120.
Figure 124. Dimensions of the mastabas north of the pyramid of Niuserre.
Figure 125. Chronological development of the surface of the tombs in Abusir.
Figure 126. Percentage of chapels with two of more false doors in the necropoleis of Giza, Saqqara and Abusir
Part IIIAdditional Methods for Controlling the Proposed Dating of a Tomb
	Chapter Eleven: Methods of Checking the Proposed Datings of Tombs
		I. Introduction
		II. The methods
		III. Tombs with an uncertain dating (testing the dating method)
	The Chapter Twelve: The Necropoleis of Saqqara, Giza and Abusir: Discussion and Conclusions
		I. Introduction
		II. The necropolis of Giza
		III. The necropolis of Saqqara
		IV. The necropolis of Abusir
		V. Discussion
Figure 127. Dating method for the tombs in the necropolis of Giza.
Figure 128. Dating of the tombs around mastaba AS 67 in Abusir-South cemetery.6
Figure 130. Plan of Abusir-South cemetery. The sequence of construction of the tombs.
Figure 131. The trichotomy of the cloud-diagrams.
Figure 132. Chronological development of the tomb surface in the necropoleis of Giza, Saqqara and Abusir.
Figure 133. Hypothetical chronological development of the surface of the tombs in Giza and Saqqara in dependence of the presence or absence of the residence.
Figure 134. The Old Kingdom as related to the chronology of the Neolithic Sub pluvial.
Part IVCatalogues and Tables
	Catalogues
	General Index1