Chronic Disease and Disability: The Pediatric Kidney

Dedication
Contents
Preface
	References
Introduction
Chapter 1
From the Kition, Cyprus and Aristotelian kidney to the 21st century pediatric kidney:
Standing on the shoulders of giants
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Renaissance: Exordium of modern nephrology
	Cardinal concepts in nephrology:  The 19th century cognoscenti
		Richard Bright (1789-1858)
		Sir Robert Christison (1797-1882)
		Pierre Rayer (1793-1867)
		Claude Bernard (1813-1878)
		Francis Delafield (1841-1915)
	Cardinal concepts in nephrology: The 20th Century  and the accession of American nephrologists
		Thomas Addis (1881-1949)
		Alfred Newton Richards (1876-1966)
		Donald Dexter Van Slyke (1883-1971)
		John P Peters (1887-1955)
		Homer W Smith (1895-1962)
		John P Merrill (1917-1984)
	Emergence and emanation of pediatric nephrology  from adult nephrology
		Renal biopsy
		Dialysis
	Penultimate introduction section: Transplantation
	Conclusion
	References
Section one:  The kidney and urogenital system
Chapter 2
The developing kidney
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Renal development
	Physiology of the neonatal kidney
	Neonatal hydronephrosis
	Abdominal mass in the newborn
		Multicystic kidney disease
		Polycystic kidney disease
		Urteropelvic Junction Obstruction
		Other abdominal masses
	Cystic kidney disease
		Glomerulocystic kidney disease
		Nephronophthisis
		Medullary cystic kidney disease
	Diagnosis and management
	Failure to thrive
	Urinary tract infection in the newborn
		Concepts of management
	Electrolyte imbalances in the newborn
	Screening renal ultrasound in other organ anomalies
		CHARGE association/syndrome
		Renal coloboma syndrome
		Townes-Brocks syndrome
		Branchio-oto-renal (BOR) syndrome
		Aniridia and renal anomalies
		Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS)
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3
Point of care ultrasound of the kidney  and bladder in pediatrics
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Rationale
	Key applications in pediatric urology
	Ultrasound basics
		Probe movements
		Physics and artifacts
		Modes
	Anatomy
		Embryology
	Technique
		The Bladder
			Technique tips
		Ureteral Jets
		The Kidneys
			Supine
		Lateral Decubitus
		Prone
	Ultrasonographic patterns of kidney pathology
		Hydronephrosis
			Grades of hydronephrosis
			Mimics of hydronephrosis
		Nephrolithiasis
		Medical renal diseases
		Nephrocalcinosis
		Renal cyst
		Agenesis and multicystic dysplasia of the kidney
		Focal pyelonephritis
		Duplication of the collecting system
		Horseshoe kidney
	Ultrasonographic patterns of bladder pathology
		Ureteroceles and distal hydroureter
		Medical devices and foreign bodies
		Other findings on POCUS of the bladder
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 4
Renal disorders in adolescence: An overview
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Organogenesis of the kidneys
	Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT)
		Renal agenesis
		Renal hypoplasia/dysplasia
		Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR)
			Clinical consequences of VUR
			Diagnosis and screening
			Management
			Continuous antibiotic prophylaxis
			Surgical intervention
			Other nonsurgical management
	Obstructive nephropathy
		Etiology
		Pathophysiology
		Symptoms and signs
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Glomerular filtration barrier (GFB)
		Podocytes
		Glomerular endothelial cells
		Glomerular basement membrane
	Proteinuria and hematuria
		Proteinuria
		Epidemiology
		Mechanisms of proteinuria
		Testing for proteinuria
		Etiology
		Transient proteinuria
		Orthostatic proteinuria
		Persistent proteinuria
		Diagnostic evaluation
		Management
		Nephrotic syndrome
		Epidemiology
		Classification
	Steroid sensitive nephrotic syndrome (SSNS)
		Therapy for SSNS
		Treatment for SRNS
		Complications of nephrotic syndrome
		Vaccinations
	Hematuria
		Incidence
		Pathophysiology
		Etiology
		Evaluation
		History
		Physical examination
		Laboratory diagnosis
		Imaging
		Management
	Acute post streptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN)
		Incidence
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical presentation
		Diagnosis
		Management
		Prognosis
	Thin basement membrane nephropathy (TBMN)
		Epidemiology
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical features
		Management
	Alport syndrome
		Genetics
		Clinical features
		Diagnosis
		Management
	IgA nephropathy
		Epidemiology
		Genetics
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical features
		Histopathology
		Treatment
	Henoch-Schonlein purpura
		Incidence
		Pathogenesis
		Clinical features
		Treatment
		Lupus nephritis
		Clinical presentation
		Laboratory evaluation
		Histological classification of lupus nephritis
		Risk factors for progression
		Treatment
		Induction and maintenance regimens
		Other biological agents
	Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
		Classification
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical features
		Laboratory diagnosis
		Treatment
	Drugs and the kidneys
		Risk factors
		Renal injury due to nephrotoxins
	Pediatric nephrolithiasis
		Etiology
		Clinical presentation
		Diagnostic evaluation
		Treatment
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5
Hypertension in adolescence
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Classification of childhood and adolescent hypertension
	Etiology
	Essential hypertension
	Pathophysiology of essential hypertension
	Iatrogenic hypertension
	Renal parenchymal disease
	Endocrine Disease
	Renovascular hypertension
	Blood pressure measurements
	Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring
		Technique and operability
		Interpretation of the results
		Limitations
	Evaluation and management of adolescent hypertension
	History and physical examination
	Laboratory investigation
	Assessing target organ damage
	Management of hypertension in adolescents
	Non-pharmacological interventions
		Weight management
		Dietary intervention
	Physical activity
	Pharmacological interventions
		ACE inhibitors
		Angiotensin receptor blockers
		Aldosterone receptor antagonists
		β-Adrenergic antagonists
		Calcium channel blockers
		Other antihypertensive agents
	Management of hypertensive emergencies
		Pathogenesis
		Clinical presentation
		Evaluation and management
	Adherence and compliance in adolescents
	Transitioning care
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 6
Autoimmune disorders in adolescence
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Kidneys in autoimmune disorders
	Lupus nephritis
	The classification
	Pathophysiology
	Presenting features
	Immunological presentations
	Investigations and diagnosis
		Urine investigations
		Blood investigations
		Immunological investigations
		Renal biopsy
	Management
		Induction phase
		Maintenance phase
		Response to therapy
	Refractory lupus nephritis
	Adjunctive treatment
	Management of ESRD
	Renal vasculitis
	Large vessel vasculitis
	Medium vessel vasculitis
	Kawasaki disease
	Small vessel vasculitis
	Renal transplant and autoimmunity
	Measurement of anti- human leukocyte antigen antibodies
	Allograft dysfunction
	Adolescent issues
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7
Chronic kidney disease in adolescence
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Definition and staging
	Epidemiology
	Etiology
	Clinical features and management
	Growth retardation
	Nutrition
	CKD mineral bone disorder
	Anemia
	Hypertension
	Electrolyte disturbance
	Neurodevelopment
	Immunization
	Puberty
	Cardiovascular complications and dyslipidemia
	Renal replacement therapy
	Dialysis
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8
Tropical nephrology: A review
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Clinical syndromes
		Asymptomatic urine abnormalities
		Macroscopic hematuria
		Acute kidney injury
		Plasmodium falciparum
	Malaria and kidney disease
		Plasmodium falciparum
		Treatment of falciparum induced acute kidney injury
		Plasmodium malariae
	Schistosomiasis
		Lower urinary tract schistosomiasis: Schistosoma haematobium
		Glomerular disease and schistosomiasis
	Schistosomiasis and the kidney: Treatment
	Empiric treatment of proteinuria with uncertain diagnosis
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9
Enuresis: Current concepts and conundrums
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Physiology of micturition
	Urine storage
	Bladder sensation
	Voiding mechanism
	Normal development
	Definitions
	Epidemiology
	Clinical features
	History
	Physical examination
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
		Treatment of nocturnal enuresis
		Lifestyle changes and motivation therapy
		Enuresis alarm and other non-pharamacological management
		Pharmacologic treatment
		Tricyclic antidepressants
		Anticholinergics
	Refractory nocturnal enuresis and referral
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 10
Circumcision
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Indications for circumcision
	Indications for circumcision for religious,  socio-economic reasons and medical prophylaxis
		Economics
		Penis cancer prevention
		Cervical cancer links
		Urinary tract infections
		Sexually transmitted diseases
	Circumcision procedure, contraindications  and complications
		Contraindications to circumcision
		Complications
	Alternatives to circumcision
	Health politics
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11
Understanding nephrotoxic medications
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Acute kidney injury in the pediatric kidney
	Clinical presentation and diagnosis
	Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
	Antibiotics
		Vancomycin
	Antifungals
	Antivirals
		Cidofovir
		Foscarnet
	Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors
	Chemotherapeutics
		Cisplatin
		Methotrexate
	Immunosuppressants
	Contrast media
	Genetics
		General management
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12
Hyperkalemia
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Etiology
		Increased potassium release from cells
		Reduced urinary potassium excretion
		Increased potassium intake
	Clinical presentation
	Diagnosis
	Treatment of hyperkalemia
		Emergent treatment
		Non-emergent treatment
		Cation-exchange resins
		Loop diuretics
		Hemodialysis
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13
Hepatorenal syndrome
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Pathophysiology
	Diagnosis and prognosis
	Treatment
	Pharmacologic treatment
		Vasoconstrictors
		Vasopressin analogues
		Midodrine and octreotide combination
		Norepinephrine
	Renal replacement therapy
	Surgical interventions
		Organ transplant
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14
Goodpasture syndrome  (Pulmonary-renal syndrome)
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Definition
	Etiology
	Epidemiology
	Pathogenesis
	Differential diagnosis
	Clinical course
		Renal symptoms
		Other symptoms
	Diagnostic considerations
		Diagnostics and pulmonary disease
	Management
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15
Current concepts of the Churg-Strauss syndrome (Eosinophilic Granulomatosis  with Polyangiitis (EGPA))
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Definition
	Pathogenesis
	Pulmonary features
	Non-pulmonary features
	Laboratory features
	Differential diagnosis
	Management
	Churg-Strauss syndrome and the kidney
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 16
Cardiac and renal manifestations of  Pompe disease
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Background and pathophysiology
	Genetics and inheritance
	Cardiac features
		Late-onset Pompe disease
	Differential diagnoses
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
	Prognostic factors
	Renal features
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 17
Genitourinary manifestations of
sexually transmitted infections
	Abstract
	Introduction
	HIV and kidney disease
		Acute kidney injury due to HIV
		CKD due to HIV
		HIV-associated nephropathy
		HIV-immune complex disease
		CKD and cART
		Treatment-related kidney disease
		Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease
		Pre-exposure prophylaxis and renal effects
		HIV and CKD
		Prevention and treatment of CKD
	Hepatitis viruses and kidney disease
		Types of renal disease associated with HBV infection
		Dialysis and renal transplant with HBV infection
		Antiviral drugs and renal dysfunction
		Acute kidney injury (AKI)
	Hepatitis C virus (HCV)
		HCV nephropathy
		Mixed cryoglobulinemia syndrome (MCS)
		Hepatorenal syndrome
		HCV and renal transplant
	Syphilis and renal disease
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical manifestation
		Renal manifestations
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Special considerations for treatment
		Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction
		Syphilis and HIV
		Penicillin allergy
		Treatment response to kidney function
	Gonorrhea and chlamydia affecting the  genitourinary system
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical presentation
		Diagnostic workup
		Treatment
		Complications
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 18
The pediatric kidney in sepsis
	Introduction
	Pathophysiology
	Diagnosis
	Management
		Fluids
		Renal vasodilators
		Vasopressors
		Diuretics
		Renal replacement therapy
		Optimization of nutrition
	Prevention
		Long-term outcomes
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 19
Chronic renal disease, exercise and  sports participation
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Renal function during exercise
	Factors affecting exercise tolerance
		Anemia
		Cardiac changes
		Skeletal muscle changes
		Physical inactivity
	Effects of exercise in persons with kidney disease
		Cardiovascular structure and function
		Skeletal muscles
		Quality of Life
	Considerations for physical activity  and sport participation
	Proteinuria
	Hematuria
	Protein intake and exercise training
	Fluid balance, exercise and chronic kidney disease
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
Section two: Chronic disease,  palliative care and death
Chapter 20
Mental health considerations in  renal disease
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Impact on quality of life for the adolescents and families
		The quality-of-life experience of the caregiver
	Common psychiatric disorders in adolescents in  renal disease
		Depression and other mood symptoms
		Anxiety disorders
		Cognitive and learning difficulties
	Psychopharmacology considerations
		Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics
		Renal considerations for psychotropic agents
	Special considerations: Dialysis patients
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 21
Behavioral aspects of chronic illness
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Definition
	Epidemiology
	Clinical features
	Family impact
	Treatment
	Medical home
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 22
Psychosocial adaptation to chronic illness and disability (CID) for children and adolescents: A global perspective
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Search methods
	Findings
	Definition
		Adaptation
		Psychosocial adaptation
		Common chronic illnesses and disabilities
	Psychosocial adaptation to chronic illness:  Overarching concepts
		Psychosocial adaptation in the literature
		Positive constructs
		Child and adolescent developmental considerations
		Emotional impact of CID
		Protective/risk factors
		Family
		Team integration
	Assessment of psychosocial adaptation
		When to conduct psychosocial adaptation assessment
		Psychosocial treatment and intervention
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 23
Physicians’ use of brief counseling models  in a pediatric outpatient setting
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Database search
	Findings
	Definition
	Role of the physician-patient relationship
	Considerations in a pediatric setting
	Brief counseling models
		Health risk behavior models
			FRAMES
		Psychosocial models
			Problem Solving Therapy
			Solution Focused Therapy
		Motivation and commitment models
			Stages of Change (transtheoretical model)
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 24
Chronic disease and the dying adolescent
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Effects of dying on adolescent development
	Issues with adolescent consent, assent, or refusal  of treatment
	Parental issues
	Issues for health care professionals and hospital staff
	Impending death of the teen patient
	Management concepts for the hospital staff
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
Section three: Acknowledgements
About the editors
About the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development in Israel
	Mission
	Service and academic activities
	Research activities
	National collaborations
	International collaborations
	Targets
	Contact
About the Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Western Michigan University Homer Stryker MD School of Medicine (WMed), Kalamazoo,  Michigan, United States of America
	Mission and service
	Research and scholarly activities
	Contact
Section four: Index
Index
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