Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades

Cover
Cover Page
Title page
Copyright page
Dedication
Preface: The Power of Change
	Changing People
	Changing Environments
	Personal Changes
	Understanding Change
	What Makes this Book Unique?
	Context and Culture
	Developmental Cascades
	Research Methods
	Dedicated Chapter on Language Development in Infancy
Features
	Scope and Organization
	Learning Tools
		Chapter-Opening Tools
		Midchapter Tools
		End-of-Chapter Tools
	The Oxford Digital Difference
	Oxford Insight Courseware
	Ancillaries for Instructors
	Oxford Learning Link
		Suggested Answers to “Check Your Understanding” Questions
		Instructor’s Manual
		Lecture PowerPoints
		Figure PowerPoints
		Concepts in Action Real-Time Class Participation Activities
		Test Bank
Acknowledgements
Reviewers for Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades
About the Author
Table of Contents
Part 1 Foundations
	1 Goals, Theories, and Methods
		■ The Goals of Developmental Science
			Describing Development
				Quantitative vs. Qualitative Change: Coral Reef Fish or Frogs?
				Differences among Children in Development
				Developmental Stability
			Explaining Development
				Genes and Environment: The Nature-Nurture Seesaw
				Developmental Cascades
					Cascades within Time
					Cascades over Time
			Applying Developmental Science
				Raising Children
				Programs and Policies
		■ Theoretical Orientations
			Foundational Theories
				Evolutionary Theory
				Psychodynamic Theories
					Freud’s Psychosexual Stage Theory
					Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Theory
				Behaviorism
					Classical Conditioning
					Operant Conditioning
				Constructivism: Piaget’s Stage Theory
					Qualitative Stages
					Schemas
					Moving through the Stages
				Lev Vygotsky and the Origins of Sociocultural Theory
			Contemporary Theories
				Nativist Approaches
				Social Learning Theory
				Information Processing Theories
				Developmental Systems Theory
				Bioecological Theories
				Sociocultural Theories
					What Is Culture?
					Children’s Cultural Environment
					Cultural Universals
		■ Research in Developmental Science
			Conducting Research
				Hypothesis-Driven Research and the Scientific Method
				Discovery-Based Science
				Sampling
				Methods: Gathering Data
					Interviews and Surveys
					Observations
					Physiological Assessments
				Study Designs
					Correlational Studies
					Experiments
					Longitudinal Studies
					Cross-Sectional Studies
					Cohort-Sequential Studies
					Microgenetic Studies
					Behavioral Genetic Studies
			Ensuring Scientific Rigor and Integrity
				Validity
				Reliability
				Scientific Replicability and Transparency
				Ethics in Research
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Setting the Stage
		■ Chapter Summary
			The Goals of Developmental Science
			Describing Development
			Explaining Development
			Applying Developmental Science
			Theoretical Orientations
			Foundational Theories
			Contemporary Theories
			Conducting Research
			Ensuring Scientific Rigor and Integrity
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	2 Heredity, Environment, and the Brain
		■ Genetics and the Environment
			Genetic Foundations
				Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes
				From Gametes to Human Beings
					Sex Chromosomes
					Alleles, Phenotypes, and Genotypes
				Mutations
					Neutral Mutations
					Positive Mutations
					Negative Mutations
					Mixed Mutations
				Decoding the Genome
				The Microbiome
			Contexts of Environmental Influences on Gene Expression
				How Do Genes and Environment Interact?
				Epigenetic Principles: From Animals to Humans
				Summing Up: The Library Metaphor
		■ The Brain
			Brain Anatomy and Function
				Forebrain
					Four Lobes
					Specialized Functions in the Right and Left Hemispheres
					Subcortical Structures
				Midbrain and Hindbrain
				Neurons and Glial Cells
				New Ways to Study the Brain
					Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
					Electroencephalography (EEG)
					Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
					Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
					Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
			Brain Development
				How the Brain Changes
					Neurogenesis
					Migration
					Synaptogenesis
					Myelination
					Synaptic Pruning
				Periods of Brain Development
			Contexts and the Brain
				Experience-Expectant Plasticity
					Visual Stimulation and Experience-Expectant Plasticity
					Language Exposure and Experience-Expectant Plasticity
					Brain Development in Atypical Populations
				Experience-Dependent Plasticity
				Timing of Experience
					Critical Periods versus Sensitive Periods in Brain Development
					Reasons for Sensitive Periods
					Flexibility of Sensitive Periods
				Looking to the Future
		Developmental Cascades
			Responding to Experiences: Dandelions and Orchids
			Susceptibility to Addiction
			Response to Maltreatment
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Dismantling the Nature-Nurture Controversy
		■ Chapter Summary
			Genetic Foundations
			Contexts of Environmental Influences on Gene Expression
			Brain Anatomy and Function
			Brain Development
			Contexts and the Brain
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	3 Prenatal and Postnatal Health and Physical Development
		■ Conception and Prenatal Development
			Conception
				Influences on Conception
					Man’s Reproductive Health
					Woman’s Reproductive Health
					Timing
				Fertility Treatments
			Prenatal Development
				Germinal Period
					Blastocyst
					Embryonic Disk and Trophoblast
				Embryonic Period
					The Growing Embryo
					From Stem Cells to Specialized Cells
				Fetal Period
					Fetal Growth and Brain Development
					Fetal Movement
					Sleep-Wake Cycles
					Breathing, Swallowing, Taste, and Smell
					Hearing
			Contextual Influences on Prenatal Development
				Teratogens
					Illicit Drugs
					Alcohol
					Environmental Teratogens
					Infectious Disease
				Maternal Exercise and Nutrition
					Exercise
					Nutrition and Fetal Development
					Adaptive Response?
					Isolating Effects
				Maternal Prenatal Care
				Maternal Psychological Functioning
					Depression
					Stress
					Adaptive Response?
		■ Birth and Infant Health
			Labor and Birth
				Stages of Labor
					First Stage of Labor
					Second Stage of Labor
					Third Stage of Labor
				Neonatal Health
				Birth Complications
					Birth Weight
					Oxygen Deprivation
				Contextual Influences on Infant Mortality and Birth Weight
				Infant Brain Development
					Growth in the Brain
					Bidirectionality and Brain Specialization
			Infant Sleep and Nutrition
				Sleep
					Types of Sleep
					Sleep-Wake Cycles
					Functions of Sleep
				Cultural Context of Infant Sleep
					Sleeping through the Night
					Co-sleeping
				Nutrition and Breastfeeding
					Breastfeeding Benefits
					Challenges to “Breast is Best”
				Context and Culture in Breastfeeding
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Fetal Movement
			Cascades from Fetal Auditory Experiences
			Cascades from Maternal Stress
			Cascades from Infant Birth Weight
			Cascades from Parenting and Protective Factors
		■ Closing Thoughts
			The Dynamics of Development
		■ Chapter Summary
			Conception
			Prenatal Development
			Contextual Influences on Prenatal Development
			Labor and Birth
			Infant Sleep and Nutrition
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
Part 2 Infancy and Toddlerhood
	4 Perceptual and Motor Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
		■ Perceptual Development
			The Study of Perception in Infants
				Early Theories
				The Ecological Theory of Perception
					Environments Contain an Abundance of Information
					Perceptual Systems and Bodies Have Evolved to Use Sensory Input
					Gauging Affordances for Action
				Methods for Studying Infant Perception
					Preferential-Looking Tests
					Habituation-Recovery Tests
					Contingent Reinforcement Studies
					New Methods, New Insights
			Tasting and Smelling
				Taste and Odor Preferences
				Contexts of Taste Perception
			Looking
				Acuity and Contrast
					Visual Acuity
					Contrast Sensitivity
				Perceiving Colors
				Size and Shape Constancy
				Perceiving Objects as “Whole”
				Tracking Motion and Actions
				Perceiving Depth
				Face Perception
				Contexts of Face Perception
					Male and Female Faces
					Race
			Hearing
				Loudness and Pitch
				Perceiving Music
				Perceiving Speech
			From Perception to Meaning: Integration and Categorization
				Perceptual Integration
				Categorization
		■ Motor Development
			The Study of Motor Development in Infants
				Gesell and the Concept of Motor Milestones
				Myrtle McGraw and Motor Practice
				Esther Thelen and Dynamic Systems
			Developments in Infant Motor Skill
				Posture
				Sitting
				Reaching, Grasping, and Tool Use
					Judging Distance
					Controlling Hands
					Play and Tool Use
				Locomoting: Crawling, Cruising, Walking
					Crawling
					Cruising
					Walking
			Contexts of Motor Development
				Home Context of Motor Development
					Back Sleeping
					Physical Layouts of Homes
				Cultural Context of Motor Development
					Cultural Practices That Facilitate Motor Skills
					Cultural Practices That Hinder Motor Skills
					Interpreting Cultural Differences
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Perceptual Development
			Cascades from Motor Development
				Sitting and Manual Skills
				Locomotion
		■ Closing Thoughts
			The Engines of Learning and Development
		■ Chapter Summary
			The Study of Perception in Infants
			Tasting and Smelling
			Looking
			Hearing
			From Perception to Meaning: Integration and Categorization
			The Study of Motor Development in Infants
			Developments in Infant Motor Skill
			Contexts of Motor Development
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	5 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
		■ Learning about the Physical World
			Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
				Sensorimotor Substages 1–5
					Reflexes and Spontaneous Movements: Birth to 1 Month
					Primary Circular Reactions: 1–4 Months
					Secondary Circular Reactions: 4–8 Months
					Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions: 8–12 Months
					Tertiary Circular Reactions: 12–18 Months
				Mental Representation (Sensorimotor Substage 6): 18–24 Months
					Deferred Imitation
					Language and Symbolic Play
					Object Permanence
				Challenges to Piaget That Inspired New Theoretical Orientations
			Nativist Tests of Infant Core Capacities
				Infant Understanding of Object Permanence
				Infant Understanding of Solidity and Substance
				Infant Understanding of Gravity and Support
				Testing Core Capacity for Understanding Number
				Challenges to Nativism
			Developmental Systems Insights into Cognitive Performance
				Modifying the A-not-B Task
				Changing Sensory Feedback
			Information Processing: Attention in Cognition
				Phases of Attention
				Selective Attention
					Stimuli that Elicit Attention
					Infant Control of Attention
					Is Infants’ Lack of Selective Attention Adaptive?
				Processing Information
				Memory
					Habituation-Recovery Studies
					Conjugate Mobile Experiments
					Deferred Imitation Tasks
			Contexts of Cognitive Development
				Home Context of Cognitive Development
					Measuring the Home Environment
					Parent-Infant Interactions
				Socioeconomic Context of Cognitive Development
				Cultural Context of Cognitive Development
		■ Learning about the Social World
			Understanding Others’ Attention
				Gaze Following and Joint Attention
				Pointing
			Understanding Others’ Actions, Knowledge, and Beliefs
				Interpreting Actions
				Imitating Actions
				Inferring Knowledge and Beliefs
			Contexts of Social Cognition
				Home Context of Social Cognition
				Cultural Context of Social Cognition
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Cognitive Development
			Cascades from Social Cognition
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Looking into the Mind of an Infant
		■ Chapter Summary
			Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
			Nativist Tests of Infant Core Capacities
			Developmental Systems Insights into Cognitive Performance
			Information Processing: Attention in Cognition
			Contexts of Cognitive Development
			Understanding Others’ Attention
			Understanding Others’ Actions, Knowledge, and Beliefs
			Contexts of Social Cognition
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	6 Language Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
		■ Describing Language Development
			Phonological Development: Learning Speech Sounds
				Perceiving and Discriminating among the Phonemes of One’s Language
				Identifying the Phonemes that Comprise Words
				Producing Sounds
					Crying
					Coos, Babbles, and Words
					Effects of Hearing Loss
			Semantic Development: Learning Word Meaning
				Receptive Language
				Productive Language
			Syntactic Development: Putting Words Together
				Understanding Sentences and Syntactic Bootstrapping
				The Path to Producing Sentences
			Pragmatic Development: Learning Communication Norms
				Turn Taking
				Attention to Nonverbal Social Cues
					Gestures
					Gaze
		■ Explaining Language Development
			Nativist Accounts of Language Development
				Universal Grammar and the LAD
				Cognitive Biases
				Deaf Children and Sign Language
					Language Learning Milestones of Deaf Children
					Deaf Children’s Spontaneous Signing
				Critical Periods and the Case of Genie
			Connectionist and Dynamic Systems Theory
				Connectionist Theory
				Dynamic Systems Theory
					The Active Child
					Detecting Regularities in the Input
			Sociocultural Theory
				Scaffolding
				Can Infants Learn Language from Screens?
			Contexts of Language Development
				Family Context of Language Development
					Infant-Directed Speech
					Amount and Diversity of Speech to Infants
					Contingent Responsiveness
					Physical Cues to Meaning
					Routines around Literacy
				Socioeconomic Context of Language Development
				Childcare Context of Language Development
				Multilingual Context of Language Development
					Similar Language Processes
					Unique Language Processes
				Cultural Context of Language Development
					Communicative Accommodation
					Channels of Communication
		Developmental Cascades
			Language Development Influences Cognitive Development
				Language Development and Thought
				Language Development and Processing Speed
				Language Development and Executive Control
			Language Development Influences Later School Success
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Language Development is Much More than Language
		■ Chapter Summary
			Phonological Development: Learning Speech Sounds
			Semantic Development: Learning Word Meaning
			Syntactic Development: Putting Words Together
			Pragmatic Development: Learning Communication Norms
			Nativist Accounts of Language Development
			Connectionist and Dynamic Systems Theory
			Sociocultural Theory
			Contexts of Language Development
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	7 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
		■ Emotional Development
			Evolutionary Theory and the Functions of Emotions
				Are Emotions Universal?
				Are Emotions Adaptive?
			Expressing Emotions
				Infant Positive Emotions
				Infant Negative Emotions
					Anger
					Fear
					Self-Conscious Emotions
			Understanding Emotions
				Discriminating Emotions
				Using Emotional Information
			Regulating Emotions
				Development of Infant Emotion Regulation
				Effortful Control
			Temperament
				The History of Temperament Studies
				Contemporary Models of Temperament
				Stability in Temperament
			Social and Cultural Contexts of Emotional Development and Temperament
				Contexts of Infant Temperament and Goodness of Fit
				Parenting Context of Emotional Development
					Parental Emotional Expressivity
					Parental Depression and Anxiety
					Parental Sensitivity and Synchrony
					Parental Cell Phone Use and Emotional Development
				Cultural Context of Emotional Development
					Culture and Infant Temperament
					Culture and the Perceptions of Emotions
		■ Social Development
			Attachment
				Evolutionary Views of Attachment
					Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment
					Harlow’s Monkeys
				Ainsworth and the Strange Situation
			Contexts of Attachment
				Parenting Context of Attachment
				Cultural Context of Attachment
					Parent Expectations and Practices
					Child-Care Structure and Arrangements
			Peer Relations and the Origins of Morality
				Prosocial Behaviors
				Moral Development and Aggression
					Moral Goodness
					Moral Understanding and Evaluation
					Moral Retribution
					Aggression
			Self-Identity
				Aspects of Self
				The Ecological and Interpersonal Selves
				The Objective Self
			Contexts of Self-Identity
				Gender Socialization: Home Context
				Gender Socialization: Cultural Context
		Developmental Cascades
			Emotion Regulation and Language Learning
			Emotion Regulation and Preschool Learning
			Emotion Regulation and Later Social Functioning
			Attachment and Later Adjustment
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Cultivating Emotional and Social Competence
		■ Chapter Summary
			Evolutionary Theory and the Functions of Emotions
			Expressing Emotions
			Understanding Emotions
			Regulating Emotions
			Temperament
			Social and Cultural Contexts of Emotional Development and Temperament
			Attachment
			Contexts of Attachment
			Peer Relations and the Origins of Morality
			Self-Identity
			Contexts of Self-Identity
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
Part 3 Early Childhood
	8 Physical Development and Health in Early Childhood
		■ Physical Development
			Brain, Physical, and Motor Development
				Brain Development
					Growth in Synaptic Connections
					Brain Lateralization and Handedness
					Corpus Callosum
					Prefrontal Cortex
					Cerebellum
					Limbic System
				Physical and Motor Development
					Changing Bodies
					Changing Motor Skills
				Home Context of Brain Development
				Cultural and Historical Context of Physical Growth
		■ Health
			Nutrition
				Food Acceptance and Healthy Diets
					Avoidance and Acceptance of New Foods
					Healthy and Balanced Diets
				Childhood Obesity
				Family Context of Nutrition
					Access to Foods
					Emotional Climate at Mealtime
					Modeling Healthy Eating
			Sleep
				Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns
				How Much Sleep Do Young Children Need?
				Family Context of Sleep
			Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment
				Infectious Diseases
				Chronic Diseases
				Unintentional Childhood Injury
				Maltreatment and Exposure to Violence
				Stress
					Positive Stress
					Tolerable Stress
					Toxic Stress
				Family Context of Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment
					Economic Resources
					Access to Healthcare
					Family Views and Practices around Vaccinations
				Neighborhood Context and Lead Exposure
				Cultural Context of Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Sleep Deprivation
				Sleep and Academic and Behavioral Outcomes
				Sleep and Obesity
			Cascades from Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Promotion and Prevention
		■ Chapter Summary
			Brain, Physical, and Motor Development
			Nutrition
			Sleep
			Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	9 Cognitive and Language Development in Early Childhood
		■ Cognitive Development
			Piaget and the Preoperational Stage
				Cognitive Achievements in the Preoperational Period
					Symbolic Understanding
					Pretend and Fantasy Play
				Cognitive Limitations
					Egocentrism
					Animistic Thinking
					Conservation
					Appearance Reality
					Hierarchical Classification
					Causal Understanding
				Cultural Context of Cognitive Development
			Cognitive Development from an Information-Processing Perspective
				Executive Functioning
					Inhibitory Control
					Cognitive Flexibility
					Working Memory
					Planning
					Strategies for Remembering
					Self-Monitoring
				The Semantic Piece of Long-Term Memory
					Developmental Changes in Semantic Memory
					Semantic Memory Aids Working Memory
				Episodic Memory
					Infantile Amnesia
					Forgetting
					Developmental Changes in Episodic Memory
					False Memories
				Family Context of Information Processing
				Preschool Context of Information Processing
				Cultural Context of Information Processing
		■ Social-Cognitive Development
			Evaluating People’s Knowledge and Expertise
				Reliability, Trustworthiness, and Familiarity
				Weighing Familiarity against Reliability
			Theory of Mind
				False-Belief Understanding
				Explaining Development in Children’s Theory of Mind
					Theory-Theory
					Executive Functioning
					Brain Development
				Lying, Deception, and Persuasion
			Contexts of Social-Cognitive Development
				Family Context of Social-Cognitive Development
				School Context of Social-Cognitive Development
				Cultural Context of Social-Cognitive Development
		■ Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding
			Growing Language Skills
				Phonology and Semantics
					Improvements in Phonology
					Improvements in Semantics
				Grammar
					Morphology: Modifying Word Meaning
					Joining Clauses
					Learning Grammar Takes Time: Rules of Syntax
					Overregularizations in Grammar
				Pragmatics
			Literacy and Mathematical Understanding
				Emergent Literacy: Reading and Writing
				Emergent Math
			Contexts: Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding
				Home Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding
					Caregiver Talk to Children
					Book Sharing and Literacy Experiences
					Parent Engagement of Children in Math-Related Activities
				Family Socioeconomic Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Skills
				Preschool Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding
					Teacher Quality
					Curriculum
				Cultural Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding
					Book Reading and Reminiscing across Cultural Communities
					Oral Storytelling across Cultural Communities
					Cultural Context of Language Features: Associations to Math and Spatial Cognition
					Mathematical Practices across Cultural Communities
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades to Academic Domains
			Cascades to Social Domains
				Language and Social Competence
				Theory of Mind and Social Relationships
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Preventing Inequities at the Starting Gate
		■ Chapter Summary
			Piaget and the Preoperational Stage
			Cognitive Development from an Information-Processing Perspective
			Evaluating People’s Knowledge and Expertise
			Theory of Mind
			Contexts of Social-Cognitive Development
			Growing Language Skills
			Literacy and Mathematical Understanding
			Contexts: Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	10 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood
		■ Emotional Development
			Emotion Understanding
				Complex and Mixed Emotions
				The Causes and Consequences of Emotions
			Emotion Regulation and Temperament
				Emotion and Behavior Regulation
				Individual Differences in Temperament
			Contexts of Emotional Development
				Parenting Context of Emotional Development
					Sensitive Responses to Emotions
					Insensitive Responses to Emotions
				Sibling Context of Emotional Development
				School Context of Emotional Development
					Teachers
					School Quality and Curriculum
				Cultural Context of Emotional Development
		■ Social Development
			Attachment and Caregiver-Child Relationship Quality
				Assessing Attachment in Young Children
				Attachment and Quality of Parenting
			Peers and Friends
				Play with Peers and Friends
					Prosocial Behaviors
					Conflict and Aggression
				Family Context of Social Skills and Aggression
					Parental Sensitivity
					Corporal Punishment
					Household Chaos and Media Violence
				Cultural Context of Social Development
			Identity Development
				Gender Identity
					Psychodynamic View
					Social Learning View
					Cognitive Developmental View
					Gender Nonconforming Children
				Family Context of Gender Development
					Play Interactions
					Language Interactions
					Division of Household Labor and Television Viewing
			Biological Context of Gender Development
				Ethnic and Racial Identities
					Children’s Understanding of Ethnic and Racial Identities
					Children’s Stereotypes and Discrimination around Race
				Family Context and Racial and Ethnic Identity
					Types of Racial and Ethnic Socialization Messages
					How Messages Change with Children’s Age
					Egalitarianism versus “Color-Blind” Ideologies
			Moral Development
				Psychodynamic View: Freud and the Id
				Cognitive Developmental View: Piaget and Kohlberg
				Social Domain View
					The Moral Domain
					The Psychological Domain
					The Societal Domain
					Morality and Intergroup Relationships
				Family Context of Moral Development
				Cultural Cosntext of Moral Development
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Emotion Understanding
			Cascades from Emotion Regulation
			Cascades from Attachment and Peer Relationships
			Cascades from Moral Development
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Development Starts Small
		■ Chapter Summary
			Emotion Understanding
			Emotion Regulation and Temperament
			Contexts of Emotional Development
			Attachment and Caregiver-Child Relationship Quality
			Peers and Friends
			Identity Development
			Moral Development
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
Part 4 Middle Childhood
	11 Physical Development and Health in Middle Childhood
		■ Brain and Physical Development
			Brain Development
				Changes to White and Gray Matter
				Changes to Brain Networks
				Coordination across Brain Regions
				Family Context and Brain Development
			Physical Development
				Gross Motor Skills .
				Fine Motor Skills
				Sex Differences in Physical Growth and Motor Skills
				Contexts of Physical Development
					School Context and Physical Activity
					Neighborhood Context and Physical Activity
					Cultural Context and Physical Activity
		■ Health
			Nutrition
				Food Insecurity
				Overweight and Obesity
				Contexts of Nutrition
					Family Context
					Neighborhood Context
					School Context
					Policy and Program Contexts of Nutrition
			Sleep
				How Much Sleep do Children Need?
				Sleep Problems in Middle Childhood
				Family Context of Sleep
			Disease and Injury
				Infectious Diseases
				Chronic Diseases and Disorders
					Asthma
					Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
				Injuries
					Motor Vehicle and Bicycle Injuries
					Injuries from Team Sports
					Preventing Injury
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Brain Development
				Cascades to Cognition and Intelligence
				Cascades to Emotional Development
			Cascades from Physical Activity
			Cascades from Food Insufficiency and Malnutrition
			Cascades from Obesity
			Cascades from Sleep
				Sleep and School Performance
				Sleep and Overweight Status
			Cascades from Chronic Disease
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Stability and Change
		■ Chapter Summary
			Brain Development
			Physical Development
			Nutrition
			Sleep
			Disease and Injury
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	12 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
		■ Cognitive Development
			Piagetian Theory
				Concrete Operational Thought
					Conservation
					Classification
					Seriation
					Perspective Taking
					Inductive Reasoning
				Limitations in Concrete Operational Thought
			Information Processing
				Attention
					Selective Attention
					Cognitive Flexibility
					Planning
				Working Memory and Processing Speed
				Metacognition and Memory Strategies
					Monitoring Performance
					Strategies for Remembering
				Semantic Memory: A Growing Knowledge Base
				Episodic and Autobiographical Memory
		■ Intelligence and Individual Differences
			Defining Intelligence
				A Single Mental Ability
				Multiple Abilities
					Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
					Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
					The Strengths and Limitations of Theories of Multiple Intelligences
			Measuring Intelligence
				The History of Intelligence Testing
					Francis Galton
					Alfred Binet
					David Wechsler
				Reliability, Validity, and Bias of Intelligence Tests
			Nature and Nurture in Intelligence
				The Heritability of Intelligence
				Environmental Influences on Intelligence
			Academic Skills: Language, Literacy, and Math
				Vocabulary and Grammar
				Reading and Writing
					Inside-Out and Outside-In Reading Skills
					Teaching Reading
					Writing
					Technology and Literacy
				Math
					Basic Math Problems and Changing Strategies
					Understanding Math Concepts
			Motivation
				Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
				Mindsets
				Views of Intelligence
			Contexts of Cognitive Development and Academic Achievement
				Family Context and Cognitive Development
				School Context and Cognitive Development
					The Curriculum
					Quality of Instruction
					Design of Instruction
					Teacher Expectations
					Classroom Climate and Class Size
					Bilingual Education
				Cultural Context and Cognitive Development
					Cultural Tools
					Culture and Schooling
					Culture and Approaches to Teaching
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Academics to Later School Performance
			Cascades from Academics to Social Relationships
			Cascading Effects in Children with Disabilities
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Thinking about Thinking
		■ Chapter Summary
			Piagetian Theory
			Information Processing
			Defining Intelligence
			Measuring Intelligence
			Nature and Nurture in Intelligence
			Academic Skills: Language, Literacy, and Math
			Motivation
			Contexts of Cognitive Development and Academic Achievement
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	13 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood
		■ Emotional Development
			Understanding Emotions
				Self-Conscious Emotions: Guilt, Shame, and Pride
					Guilt and Shame
					Pride
				The Causes and Consequences of Emotions
				Theory of Mind and Moral Reasoning
			Expressing and Regulating Emotions
				Display Rules and Regulating Emotions
				Emotional Coping
			Contexts of Emotional Development
				Family Context of Emotional Development
					Parents as Models
					Parent Responses to Children’s Emotions
					Physical Punishment and Maltreatment
					Sibling Relationships
				Peer Context of Emotional Development
				Cultural Context of Emotional Development
					Cultures Differ on the Meaning of Specific Emotions
					Cultures Differ in Norms around Emotional Expression
		■ Social Development
			Self-Identity Development
				Erik Erikson’s Theory
				Evaluating Self
				Gender Identity
					Gender Stereotypes
					Gender Stereotypes Concerning Status and Occupation
					Gender-Stereotype Flexibility
					The Affective Dimension of Gender Identity
				Ethnic and Racial Identities
					Developing Ethnic and Racial Identities
					Ethnic and Racial Stereotypes
					Attitudes toward the In-Group and Out-Group
					Awareness of Bias
				Intergroup Relations and Moral Development
			Contexts of Self-Identity Development
				Family Context and Gender Self-Identity
				Family and School Contexts and Racial and Ethnic Self-Identity
				Peer and Media Contexts and Gender Self-Identity
			Relationships with Parents
				Attachment
				Parenting Styles
			Relationships with Peers
				Friendships
					Mutuality in Friendships
					Functions of Friendships
					Similarities among Friends
					Conflict in Friendships
				Peer Acceptance and Rejection
					Measuring Acceptance and Rejection
					Popular Children
					Rejected Children
					Controversial Children
					Neglected Children
				The Pain of Exclusion
			Contexts of Social Development
				Family and School Contexts of Social Development
				Social Media Context of Social Development
				Cultural Context of Social Development
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Emotional Development
			Cascades from Self-Identity
			Cascades from Gender Self-Identity
			Cascades from Peer Acceptance and Rejection
			Cascades as Illustrated through a 20-Year Study
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Vulnerabilities and Strengths
		■ Chapter Summary
			Understanding Emotions
			Expressing and Regulating Emotions
			Contexts of Emotional Development
			Self-Identity Development
			Contexts of Self-Identity Development
			Relationships with Parents
			Relationships with Peers
			Contexts of Social Development
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
Part 5 Adolescence
	14 Physical Development and Health in Adolescence
		■ Physical and Brain Development
			Brain Development
				Synaptogenesis, Pruning, and Myelination
					Changes to Gray Matter
					Changes to White Matter
				Asymmetry in Brain Development
					Limbic System
					Neurotransmitters
					Autonomic Nervous System
			Puberty
				Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics
				The Growth Spurt
				Injuries
				Hormones
				Stages of Puberty
					Pubertal Timing and Adolescent Adjustment
					Mechanisms of Influence
				Home Context of Puberty
				Cultural Context of Puberty
					Cultural Reactions to Puberty
					Cultural Traditions around Puberty
					Preparing Adolescents for Adulthood
			Emergence of Sexual Behavior
				Learning about Sexuality and Engaging in Sex
				Peer Context of Sexuality
				Cultural Context of Sexuality
		■ Health
			Sexually Transmitted Infections and Pregnancy
				Sexually Transmitted Infections
				Pregnancy and Parenthood in Adolescence
					Adolescent Pregnancy Rates
					Consequences of Adolescent Parenthood for the Infant
					Consequences of Adolescent Parenthood for Girls
					Consequences of Adolescent Parenthood for Boys
				Contexts of Adolescent Pregnancy
			Nutrition
				Eating Disorders
					Anorexia Nervosa
					Bulimia Nervosa
					Prevalence Rates for Eating Disorders
				Overweight or Obese
					Prevalence Rates of Obesity
					Nutrition and Exercise
				Contexts of Eating Disorders and Obesity
					Family Context
					Ethnicity and Racial Context
					Neighborhood Context
			Sleep
				Circadian Rhythm
				Too Little Sleep
				Poor-Quality Sleep
				Contexts of Sleep
					Technology Context
					School Context
					Cultural Context
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Brain Development
				Brain Cascades to Cognitive Development
				Brain Cascades to Risk Taking
				Brain Bases of Depression and Anxiety
			Cascades from Pubertal Timing
			Cascades from Overweight and Obesity
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Primed to Learn
		■ Chapter Summary
			Brain Development
			Puberty
			Emergence of Sexual Behavior
			Sexually Transmitted Infections and Pregnancy
			Nutrition
			Sleep
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	15 Cognitive Development in Adolescence
		■ Cognitive Development
			Piagetian Theory
				Abstract and Propositional Thinking
				Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
					Combination of Liquids Problem
					Pendulum Problem
				Rethinking the Formal Operational Stage
			Information Processing
				Selective Attention and Flexibility
				Working Memory and Processing Speed
				Memory Strategies and Metacognition
					Changes in Memory Strategies
					Metacognition
			Social Cognition
				Perspective Taking
				Adolescent Egocentrism
				Moral Reasoning
				Moral Behavior
			Cultural Context of Adolescent Cognitive Development
				Cultural Tools and Activities
				Culture and Schooling
		■ Language, Literacy, and Academic Skills
			Language and Literacy Development
				Vocabulary and Grammar
				Reading and Writing
				Gender Differences in Academic Proficiencies
					Gendered Socialization
					Cultural Messages
			School Engagement and Motivation
				Components of School Engagement
				Academic Motivation and Performance
					Lack of Motivation Undermines Engagement and Performance
					Choice Matters
				Explaining Motivation
					Mindsets and Goal Orientations
					Expectations for Success
					Task Value
					Test Anxiety
			Contexts of Academic Achievement
				Family and Peer Context of Academic Achievement
				School Context of Academic Achievement
					Quality of the Teacher-Student Relationship
					Stereotype Threat
					Experiences of Discrimination
				Neighborhood Context of Academic Achievement
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascading Effects of Cognitive Development on Civic Engagement
			Cascading Effects of Academic Motivation on Life Trajectories
			Cascading Effects of School Dropout
			Preventing School Dropout
		■ Closing Thoughts
			The Blurred Boundary between Ability and Performance
		■ Chapter Summary
			Piagetian Theory
			Information Processing
			Social Cognition
			Cultural Context of Adolescent Cognitive Development
			Language and Literacy Development
			School Engagement and Motivation
			Contexts of Academic Achievement
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
	16 Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence
		■ Emotional Development
			Emotional Experiences
				Emotional Reactivity
				Emotional Valence
				Adolescent Depression
					Sex Differences in Depression
					Diagnosing Depression
					Treating Depression
			Self-Regulation
				Development of Adolescent Self-Regulation
				Development of Risk Taking
			Contexts of Emotional Development
				Family and Peer Contexts of Emotional Development
				School and Neighborhood Contexts of Emotional Development
		■ Self-Identity Development
			Erik Erikson’s Theory
				Identity Achievement versus Role Confusion
				The Psychosocial Moratorium
			James Marcia and Identity Statuses
				Marcia’s Identity Statuses
				Adolescent Self-Esteem
			Ethnic and Racial Identity
				Development of Ethnic Identity
				Navigating Two Identities
			Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
				Gender Identity
				Sexual Orientation
				Romantic Relationships
					Dating and Sexual Activity
					The Blurred Boundaries of Romantic Relationships
					Developmental Changes in Romantic Relationships
			Contexts of Self-Identity
				Family Context of Self-Identity
				School Context of Self-Identity
				Cultural Context of Self-Identity
		■ Social Relationships
			Relationships with Parents and Siblings
				Closeness and Attachment to Parents
				Conflict with Parents
				Parental Monitoring and Adolescent Disclosure
				Siblings
					A Special Relationship
					Adolescent Sibling Relationships
				Immigrant Context of the Adolescent-Parent Relationship
			Relationships with Peers
				Friendships
				Cliques and Crowds
				Bullying
			Social Media
				Benefits of Social Media Use
				Overuse of Social Media
				Disclosing Too Much Information
					Why Do Some Teens Divulge Too Much?
					Dangerous Encounters
		Developmental Cascades
			Cascades from Adolescent Depression and Self-Esteem
			Cascades from Relationships with Parents
			Cascades from Relationships with Peers
				Social Isolation and Substance Use
				Victimization
		■ Closing Thoughts
			Positive Cascades
		■ Chapter Summary
			Emotional Experiences
			Self-Regulation
			Contexts of Emotional Development
			Erik Erikson’s Theory
			James Marcia and Identity Statuses
			Ethnic and Racial Identity
			Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
			Contexts of Self-Identity
			Relationships with Parents and Siblings
			Relationships with Peers
			Social Media
			Developmental Cascades
		Thinking Like a Developmentalist
		List of Key Terms
Glossary
References
	Chapter 1
	Chapter 2
	Chapter 3
	Chapter 4
	Chapter 5
	Chapter 6
	Chapter 7
	Chapter 8
	Chapter 9
	Chapter 10
	Chapter 11
	Chapter 12
	Chapter 13
	Chapter 14
	Chapter 15
	Chapter 16
Index
List of Illustrations
List of Tables