Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6th Edition

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
About the Authors......Page 7
Brief Contents......Page 9
Table of Contents......Page 11
Special Topics......Page 20
Preface......Page 21
1 Chemistry and the Atomic/Molecular View of Matter......Page 33
1.1 Chemistry and Its Place among the Sciences......Page 34
1.2 Laws and Theories: The Scientific Method......Page 35
Hypotheses and Theories: Models of Nature......Page 36
Elements......Page 37
Mixtures......Page 39
Physical and Chemical Changes......Page 40
The Atomic Theory......Page 41
1.5 Atoms and Molecules and Chemical Formulas......Page 42
Chemical Formulas......Page 43
Atoms, Molecules, and the Law of Definite Proportions......Page 48
Molecules Small and Large......Page 49
1.6 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations......Page 51
Chemical Reactions and Conservation of Mass......Page 53
Summary......Page 55
Review Questions and Problems......Page 56
Review Problems......Page 58
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 60
2 Scientific Measurements......Page 61
States of Matter......Page 62
Intensive and Extensive Properties......Page 63
International System of Units (SI Units)......Page 64
Non-SI Units......Page 66
Decimal Multipliers......Page 67
Laboratory Measurements......Page 68
Uncertainties in Measurements......Page 73
Significant Figures......Page 74
Significant Figures in Calculations......Page 75
Conversion Factors......Page 77
Equivalencies......Page 81
2.5 Density and Specific Gravity......Page 83
Specific Gravity......Page 85
Importance of Reliable Measurements......Page 87
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 88
Review Questions and Problems......Page 90
Review Problems......Page 91
Additional Exercises......Page 93
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 94
3 Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table......Page 95
Discovery of the Electron, Proton, and Neutron......Page 96
Subatomic Particles......Page 99
Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers......Page 100
Relative Atomic Masses of Elements......Page 101
Carbon-12: Standard for the Atomic Mass Scale......Page 102
Average Atomic Masses from Isotopic Abundances......Page 103
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table......Page 104
Arrangement of the Modern Periodic Table......Page 105
Special Terminology of the Periodic Table......Page 106
3.3 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids......Page 107
Metals......Page 108
Nonmetals......Page 109
Reactions of Metals with Nonmetals......Page 110
Formulas of Ionic Compounds......Page 113
3.5 Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds......Page 117
Naming Ionic Compounds of Representative Elements......Page 118
Naming Cations of Transition Metals......Page 119
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions......Page 120
Molecular Compounds Made from Nonmetals......Page 122
Binary Molecular Compounds......Page 126
Naming Molecular and Ionic Compounds......Page 127
Summary......Page 129
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 130
Review Questions and Problems......Page 132
Review Problems......Page 134
Additional Exercises......Page 136
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 137
4 The Mole and Stoichiometry......Page 138
4.1 The Molecular Scale versus the Laboratory Scale......Page 139
The Mole Concept Applied to Compounds......Page 140
Converting between Mass and Moles......Page 141
Avogadro’s Number......Page 142
Using Avogadro’s Number......Page 143
Mole-to-Mole Conversion Factors......Page 145
Mass-to-Mass Calculations......Page 146
Percentage Composition......Page 148
Percentage Composition and Chemical Identity......Page 149
Empirical Formulas from Mass Data......Page 151
Empirical Formulas from Experimental Mass Percentages......Page 154
Empirical Formulas from Indirect Analysis......Page 155
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas and Molecular Masses......Page 159
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 160
Calculations that Use Balanced Chemical Equations......Page 162
Limiting Reactants Viewed at the Molecular Level......Page 167
A Strategy for Solving Limiting Reactant Problems......Page 168
4.6 Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield......Page 171
Multi-Step Reactions......Page 173
Summary......Page 174
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 175
Review Questions and Problems......Page 176
Review Problems......Page 178
Additional Exercises......Page 183
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 184
Bringing It Together: Chapters 1–4......Page 185
5 Molecular View of Reactions in Aqueous Solutions......Page 187
5.1 Describing Solutions......Page 188
5.2 Electrolytes, Weak Electrolytes, and Nonelectrolytes......Page 189
Dissociation Reactions......Page 190
Equations for Ionic Reactions......Page 192
Criteria for Balanced Ionic and Net Ionic Equations......Page 195
5.3 Acids and Bases......Page 196
Formation of H₃O+ by Acids......Page 197
Formation of OH- by Bases......Page 199
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases......Page 201
Naming Oxoacids......Page 205
Acid Salts......Page 206
Predicting Precipitation Reactions......Page 207
Predicting Reactions in Which a Gas Is Formed......Page 212
Using Metathesis Reactions to Synthesize Salts......Page 216
Using Molarity as a Conversion Factor......Page 217
Obtaining Moles of Solute from Molarity and Volume......Page 219
Diluting Solutions......Page 221
5.7 Solution Stoichiometry......Page 222
Using Net Ionic Equations in Calculations......Page 224
5.8 Titrations and Chemical Analysis......Page 228
Acid-Base Titrations......Page 230
Summary......Page 235
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 236
Review Questions and Problems......Page 238
Review Problems......Page 240
Additional Exercises......Page 243
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 244
6 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 245
6.1 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 246
Using Oxidation Numbers to Follow Redox Changes......Page 248
The Ion–Electron Method: A Divide and Conquer Approach......Page 254
Balancing Redox Equations in Acidic Solutions......Page 255
Balancing Redox Equations for Basic Solutions......Page 258
6.3 Acids as Oxidizing Agents......Page 259
The Anion Determines the Oxidizing Power of an Acid......Page 260
6.4 Redox Reactions of Metals......Page 263
Activity Series of Metals......Page 264
Using the Activity Series to Predict Reactions......Page 265
Oxidation of Organic Compounds......Page 267
Reactions of Metals with Oxygen......Page 270
6.6 Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions......Page 271
Summary......Page 274
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 275
Review Problems......Page 276
Additional Exercises......Page 281
Multi-Concept Problems......Page 283
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 284
7 Energy and Chemical Change......Page 285
Potential Energy......Page 286
Heat and Temperature......Page 288
7.2 Internal Energy......Page 289
Temperature and Average Molecular Kinetic Energy......Page 290
7.3 Measuring Heat......Page 291
The Heat and Temperature Change......Page 292
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions......Page 297
7.5 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 299
First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 301
ΔE, Constant-Volume Calorimetry......Page 302
ΔH, Constant-Pressure Calorimetry......Page 304
ΔH˚, Enthalpy Change for a Reaction at Standard State......Page 307
Manipulating Thermochemical Equations......Page 309
Enthalpy Diagrams......Page 310
Heats of Reaction from Hess’s Law......Page 313
7.9 Standard Heats of Reaction......Page 315
Standard Heats of Formation and Hess’s Law Equation......Page 316
Summary......Page 324
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 325
Review Questions......Page 327
Review Problems......Page 328
Additional Problems......Page 332
Multi-Concept Problems......Page 333
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 334
Bringing It Together: Chapters 5–7......Page 335
8 The Quantum Mechanical Atom......Page 337
The Nature of Light......Page 338
Wavelength and Frequency......Page 339
Electromagnetic Spectrum......Page 341
Light as a Stream of Photons......Page 343
8.2 Line Spectra and the Rydberg Equation......Page 346
The Spectrum of Hydrogen......Page 347
Quantized Energies of Electrons in Atoms......Page 348
The Bohr Model of Hydrogen......Page 349
8.4 The Wave Mechanical Model......Page 350
Electron Diffraction and Wave Properties of Electrons......Page 351
Quantized Energy of Bound Electrons......Page 353
Electron Waves in Atoms Are Called Orbitals......Page 356
The Whole Picture......Page 357
8.6 Electron Spin......Page 358
Pauli Exclusion Principle......Page 359
8.7 Energy Levels and Ground State Electron Configurations......Page 360
Ground State Electron Configurations......Page 361
Predicting Ground State Electron Configurations......Page 362
Abbreviated Electron Configurations......Page 365
Valence Shell Electron Configurations......Page 367
Some Unexpected Electron Configurations......Page 368
8.9 Atomic Orbitals: Shapes and Orientations......Page 369
Shapes and Sizes of s and p Orbitals......Page 370
Shapes and Orientations of d Orbitals in a d Subshell......Page 371
Atomic and Ionic Sizes......Page 372
Ionization Energy......Page 375
Electron Affinity......Page 379
Irregularities in Periodic Trends......Page 380
Summary......Page 382
Review Questions and Problems......Page 383
Review Problems......Page 385
Additional Exercises......Page 387
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 388
9 The Basics of Chemical Bonding......Page 389
9.2 Ionic Bonding......Page 390
Importance of the Lattice Energy......Page 391
Determining Lattice Energies......Page 392
Stability of the Noble Gas Configuration......Page 394
Cations That Do Not Obey the Octet Rule......Page 395
9.4 Lewis Symbols: Keeping Track of Valence Electrons......Page 398
Using Lewis Symbols to Represent Ionic Compounds......Page 399
Energy Changes on Bond Formation......Page 400
Pairing of Electrons in Covalent Bonds......Page 402
The Octet Rule and Covalent Bonding......Page 403
Multiple Bonds......Page 404
9.6 Covalent Compounds of Carbon......Page 405
Compounds That Also Contain Oxygen and Nitrogen......Page 406
Polar and Nonpolar Bonds......Page 409
Electronegativity......Page 411
Reactivities of the Elements and Electronegativity......Page 413
9.8 Lewis Structures......Page 414
A Procedure for Drawing Lewis Structures......Page 415
Formal Charges and Lewis Structures......Page 419
Coordinate Covalent Bonds......Page 425
When We Draw Resonance Structures......Page 426
Stability of Molecules with Resonance Structures......Page 428
Summary......Page 431
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 432
Review Questions......Page 433
Review Problems......Page 435
Additional Exercises......Page 438
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 439
10 Theories of Bonding and Structure......Page 440
Linear Molecules......Page 441
Trigonal Bipyramidal Molecules......Page 442
10.2 Molecular Shapes and the VSEPR Model......Page 443
Lewis Structures and the VSEPR Model......Page 444
Nonbonding Domains and Molecular Shapes......Page 446
Steps in Using the VSEPR Model to Determine Molecular Shape......Page 449
10.3 Molecular Structure and Dipole Moments......Page 452
Bond Formation by Orbital Overlap......Page 456
Overlap of Atomic Orbitals and Molecular Shapes......Page 458
10.5 Hybrid Orbitals and Molecular Geometry......Page 459
Hybrid Orbitals Formed from s and p Atomic Orbitals......Page 460
Using the VSEPR Model to Predict Hybridization......Page 464
Hybrid Orbitals Formed from s, p, and d Orbitals......Page 466
Molecules with Nonbonding Domains......Page 468
Formation of Coordinate Covalent Bonds......Page 470
10.6 Hybrid Orbitals and Multiple Bonds......Page 471
Double Bonds......Page 472
Sigma Bonds and Molecular Structure......Page 475
Formation of Molecular Orbitals from Atomic Orbitals......Page 477
MO Description of Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of Period 2......Page 480
Some Simple Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 482
10.8 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals......Page 484
10.9 Bonding in Solids......Page 485
Transistors and Other Electronic Devices......Page 486
Nonmetals in Period 2......Page 488
Nonmetallic Elements below Period 2......Page 490
Summary......Page 493
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 494
Review Questions......Page 496
Review Problems......Page 498
Additional Exercises......Page 500
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 501
Bringing It Together: Chapters 8–10......Page 502
11 Properties of Gases......Page 504
Familiar Properties of Gases......Page 505
The Barometer......Page 506
Units of Pressure......Page 508
Manometers......Page 509
Manometers with Liquids Other than Mercury......Page 511
Pressure–Volume Law......Page 512
Temperature–Volume Law......Page 513
Combined Gas Law......Page 514
Avogadro’s Principle......Page 518
Stoichiometry Problems......Page 519
11.5 Ideal Gas Law......Page 522
Calculating Molar Mass......Page 525
Gas Densities......Page 526
Stoichiometry Using the Ideal Gas Law......Page 529
Partial Pressures......Page 531
Collecting Gases over Water......Page 532
Mole Fractions and Partial Pressures......Page 534
Graham’s Law of Effusion......Page 536
11.7 Kinetic Molecular Theory......Page 541
Kinetic Theory and the Gas Laws......Page 542
11.8 Real Gases......Page 545
The van der Waals Equation......Page 546
Composition of the Atmosphere......Page 547
Ozone and the Ozone Layer......Page 548
Greenhouse Gases and Global Temperature Change......Page 549
Summary......Page 550
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 551
Review Questions......Page 553
Review Problems......Page 554
Additional Problems......Page 556
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 558
12 Intermolecular Attractions and the Properties of Liquids and Solids......Page 559
Distance and Intermolecular Forces......Page 560
London Forces......Page 561
Hydrogen Bonds......Page 564
Estimating the Effects of Intermolecular Forces......Page 567
Properties that Depend on Strengths of Intermolecular Attractions......Page 569
Evaporation, Sublimation, and Intermolecular Attractions......Page 572
12.4 Changes of State and Dynamic Equilibria......Page 574
Factors that Determine the Equilibrium Vapor Pressure......Page 576
Factors that Do Not Affect the Equilibrium Vapor Pressure......Page 577
12.6 Boiling Points of Liquids......Page 578
Boiling Points and Intermolecular Attractions......Page 579
12.7 Energy and Changes of State......Page 580
Molar Heats of Fusion, Vaporization, and Sublimation......Page 581
The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation......Page 584
12.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle and State Changes......Page 587
12.10 Phase Diagrams......Page 588
Interpreting a Phase Diagram......Page 589
Supercritical Fluids......Page 590
Lattices and Unit Cells......Page 592
Cubic Lattices......Page 594
Compounds that Crystallize with Cubic Lattices......Page 596
Effects of Stoichiometry on Crystal Structure......Page 597
Closest-Packed Solids......Page 598
12.12 X-Ray Diffraction of Solids......Page 600
Ionic Crystals......Page 603
Metallic Crystals......Page 604
Summary......Page 607
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 608
Review Questions and Problems......Page 609
Review Problems......Page 613
Additional Exercises......Page 615
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 616
13 Mixtures at the Molecular Level: Properties of Solutions......Page 617
Gas Molecules and Spontaneous Mixing......Page 618
The Solubility of Solids in Liquids......Page 619
Solutions of Solids in Liquids......Page 621
Solutions of Liquids in Liquids......Page 622
Gas Solubility......Page 624
13.3 Solubility as a Function of Temperature......Page 625
Temperature and Gas Solubility......Page 626
13.4 Henry’s Law......Page 627
Percent Concentration......Page 629
Molal Concentration......Page 631
Conversions among Concentration Units......Page 632
13.6 Temperature-Dependent Concentration Units......Page 634
13.7 Colligative Properties......Page 635
Raoult’s Law and Two Volatile Solutes......Page 638
Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation......Page 640
Determining Molar Masses......Page 642
Osmosis......Page 644
Osmotic Pressure......Page 645
Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutes......Page 650
Suspensions......Page 655
Colloids......Page 656
Summary......Page 658
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 659
Review Questions and Problems......Page 660
Review Problems......Page 661
Additional Problems......Page 663
Multi-Concept Problems......Page 664
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 665
Bringing It Together: Chapters 11–13......Page 666
14 Chemical Kinetics......Page 668
14.1 Factors that Affect Reaction Rates......Page 669
Ability of the Reactants to Meet......Page 670
14.2 Measuring Reaction Rates......Page 671
Relative Rates and Reaction Stoichiometry......Page 672
Reaction Rates versus Time......Page 674
Rate Laws from Reaction Rates and Concentrations......Page 677
Orders of Reaction......Page 678
Obtaining Rate Laws from Experimental Data......Page 680
First-Order Reactions......Page 686
Carbon-14 Dating......Page 691
Second-Order Reactions......Page 693
Second-Order Rate Constants......Page 694
Graphical Interpretation of Orders of Reactions......Page 695
14.5 Molecular Basis of Collision Theory......Page 696
Collision Theory......Page 697
Potential Energy Diagrams......Page 699
Potential Energy Diagrams and Heat of Reaction......Page 700
14.7 Activation Energies......Page 701
Graphical Determination of Activation Energy......Page 702
Calculating Activation Energies from Rate Constants at Two Temperatures......Page 704
14.8 Mechanisms of Reactions......Page 707
Rate Laws and Rate-Determining Steps......Page 708
14.9 Catalysts......Page 712
Heterogeneous Catalysts......Page 713
Summary......Page 715
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 716
Review Questions and Problems......Page 718
Review Problems......Page 720
Additional Exercises......Page 724
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 726
15 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 727
A Molecular Interpretation of Equilibrium......Page 728
15.2 Equilibrium Laws......Page 730
Homogeneous Equilibria......Page 732
Manipulating Equilibrium Laws......Page 734
15.3 Equilibrium Laws Based on Pressures or Concentrations......Page 735
Relating K[sub(P)] to K[sub(c)]......Page 737
15.4 Equilibrium Laws for Heterogeneous Reactions......Page 738
15.5 Position of Equilibrium and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 740
Adding or Removing a Reactant or Product......Page 742
Changing the Volume of a Gaseous Equilibrium......Page 743
Changing the Temperature......Page 744
Pressure Changes Caused by Adding an Inert Gas at Constant Volume......Page 746
15.7 Calculating Equilibrium Constants......Page 747
Concentration Tables......Page 748
15.8 Using Equilibrium Constants to Calculate Concentrations......Page 751
Using K[sub(c)] and Initial Concentrations......Page 752
Calculations when K[sub(c)] Is Very Small......Page 758
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 763
Review Questions and Problems......Page 765
Review Problems......Page 766
Additional Exercises......Page 769
Multi-Concept Problems......Page 770
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 771
16 Acids and Bases, A Molecular Look......Page 772
16.1 Brønsted–Lowry Definition of Acids and Bases......Page 773
Proton Transfer Reactions......Page 774
Conjugate Acids and Bases......Page 775
Comparing Acids and Bases to a Relative Standard......Page 778
Hydronium Ion and Hydroxide Ion in Water......Page 779
Comparing Acid–Base Strengths of Conjugate Pairs......Page 780
Trends in the Strengths of Binary Acids......Page 782
Trends in the Strengths of Oxoacids......Page 783
Examples of Lewis Acid–Base Reactions......Page 787
Interpreting Brønsted–Lowry Acid–Base Reactions Using the Lewis Acid–Base Concept......Page 790
16.5 Acid–Base Properties of Elements and Their Oxides......Page 791
Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions......Page 792
Influence of Oxidation Number on the Acidity of Metal Oxides......Page 793
The Sol-Gel Process......Page 794
Summary......Page 797
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 798
Review Questions and Problems......Page 799
Review Problems......Page 800
Additional Exercises......Page 801
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 802
Bringing It Together: Chapters 14–16......Page 803
17 Acid–Base Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions......Page 805
Autoionization of Water......Page 806
Criteria for Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Solutions......Page 807
The pH Concept......Page 808
pH Calculations......Page 809
Strong Acids and Bases......Page 810
Effect of Solute on the Ionization of Water......Page 811
Reaction of a Weak Acid with Water......Page 812
Reaction of a Weak Base with Water......Page 813
The Product of K[sub(a)] and K[sub(b)]......Page 815
Methods Using Initial Concentrations and Equilibrium Data......Page 816
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 820
Simplifications in Calculations......Page 821
17.6 pH of Salt Solutions......Page 825
Basic Anions......Page 826
Acid–Base Properties of Salts......Page 827
Salts of a Weak Acid and a Weak Base......Page 829
How a Buffer Works......Page 830
Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution......Page 831
Preparing Buffers with a Desired pH......Page 833
Calculating pH Change for a Buffer......Page 835
17.8 Polyprotic Acids......Page 837
Simplifications in Calculations......Page 838
Salts of Polyprotic Acids......Page 840
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations......Page 843
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations......Page 845
Weak Base–Strong Acid Titrations......Page 847
Acid–Base Indicators......Page 848
Summary......Page 851
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 853
Review Questions and Problems......Page 854
Review Problems......Page 856
Additional Exercises......Page 859
Multi-Concept Problems......Page 860
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 861
18 Solubility and Simultaneous Equilibria......Page 862
Solubility Product Constant, K[sub(sp)]......Page 863
Ion Product, the Reaction Quotient for Slightly Soluble Salts......Page 864
Determining K[sub(sp)] from Molar Solubilities......Page 865
Determining Molar Solubility from K[sub(sp)]......Page 868
The Common Ion Effect......Page 870
Determining whether a Precipitate Will Form......Page 873
Solubility Equilibria for Metal Sulfides and Oxides......Page 877
Acid-Insoluble Sulfides......Page 878
18.3 Selective Precipitation......Page 879
Metal Sulfides......Page 881
Metal Carbonates......Page 883
Separating Metal Ions: Qualitative Analysis......Page 886
Formation of Complex Ions......Page 887
Instability Constants......Page 889
18.5 Complexation and Solubility......Page 890
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 893
Review Questions......Page 894
Review Problems......Page 895
Additional Exercises......Page 898
Multi-Concept Problems......Page 899
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 900
19 Thermodynamics......Page 901
19.1 First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 902
Pressure–Volume Work......Page 903
The Difference between ∆E and ∆H......Page 904
19.2 Spontaneous Change......Page 906
Direction of Spontaneous Change......Page 907
Distributing Energy in a System......Page 908
Factors that Affect ∆S......Page 909
Predicting the Sign of ∆S for a Chemical Reaction......Page 911
19.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 912
Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 913
The Gibbs Free Energy......Page 914
Calculating ∆S° for a Reaction......Page 916
19.6 Standard Free Energy Change, ∆G°......Page 919
19.7 Maximum Work and ∆G......Page 922
19.8 Free Energy and Equilibrium......Page 925
Estimating Melting and Boiling Points......Page 926
Free Energy Diagrams......Page 927
∆G° and the Position of Equilibrium......Page 929
∆G° Varies with Temperature......Page 930
19.9 Equilibrium Constants and ∆G°......Page 932
19.10 Bond Energies......Page 936
Determining Bond Energies......Page 937
Estimating Heats of Formation......Page 938
Summary......Page 940
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 941
Review Questions......Page 942
Review Problems......Page 944
Additional Exercises......Page 947
Multi-Concept Questions......Page 948
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 949
20 Electrochemistry......Page 950
Construction of a Galvanic Cell......Page 951
Conduction of Charge......Page 953
Standard Cell Notation......Page 954
20.2 Cell Potentials......Page 956
Reduction Potentials......Page 957
The Hydrogen Electrode......Page 958
Predicting Spontaneous Reactions......Page 963
Calculating Standard Cell Potentials......Page 964
Cell Potentials of Spontaneous Reactions......Page 966
20.4  E°[sub cell] and ∆G°......Page 968
 E°[sub cell] and Equilibrium Constants......Page 970
20.5 Cell Potentials and Concentrations......Page 971
The Nernst Equation......Page 972
Concentration from  E°[sub cell] Measurements......Page 975
20.6 Electricity......Page 977
Batteries......Page 978
Fuel Cells......Page 982
Photovoltaic Cells......Page 983
20.7 Electrolytic Cells......Page 984
Comparing Electrolytic and Galvanic Cells......Page 985
Electrolysis of Water in Aqueous Systems......Page 986
Standard Reduction Potentials and Electrolysis Products......Page 988
20.8 Electrolysis Stoichiometry......Page 991
Industrial Applications......Page 994
Summary......Page 998
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 999
Review Questions......Page 1000
Review Problems......Page 1001
Additional Exercises......Page 1004
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 1005
Bringing It Together: Chapters 17–20......Page 1006
21 Nuclear Reactions and Their Role in Chemistry......Page 1008
21.1 Conservation of Mass and Energy......Page 1009
21.2 Nuclear Binding Energy......Page 1010
21.3 Radioactivity......Page 1012
Alpha Radiation......Page 1013
Beta Radiation......Page 1014
Gamma Radiation......Page 1015
Positron and Neutron Emission......Page 1017
Radioactive Disintegration Series......Page 1018
21.4 Band of Stability......Page 1020
Nuclear Reactions of Unstable Nuclei......Page 1021
Odd–Even Rule......Page 1022
21.5 Transmutation......Page 1023
Compound Nuclei......Page 1024
Synthetic Elements......Page 1025
Units of Radiation......Page 1026
Radiation and Living Tissue......Page 1029
Tracer Analysis......Page 1030
Radiological Dating......Page 1031
Nuclear Fission Reactions......Page 1032
Nuclear Fusion......Page 1036
Summary......Page 1039
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 1041
Review Questions......Page 1042
Review Problems......Page 1043
Additional Exercises......Page 1045
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 1047
22 Metal Complexes......Page 1048
22.1 Complex Ions......Page 1049
Types of Ligands......Page 1050
Writing Formulas for Metal Complexes......Page 1052
The Chelate Effect......Page 1053
22.2 Metal Complex Nomenclature......Page 1054
Coordination Number and Geometry......Page 1057
22.4 Isomers of Metal Complexes\r......Page 1059
Stereoisomerism......Page 1060
Chirality......Page 1061
22.5 Bonding in Metal Complexes......Page 1063
Crystal Field Theory......Page 1064
Colors of Metal Complexes......Page 1066
Magnetic Properties of Complexes......Page 1068
Crystal Field Theory and Other Geometries......Page 1069
22.6 Biological Functions of Metal Ions......Page 1070
Summary......Page 1072
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 1073
Review Questions......Page 1074
Review Problems......Page 1075
Additional Exercises......Page 1077
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 1078
23 Organic Compounds, Polymers, and Biochemicals......Page 1079
Uniqueness of the Element Carbon......Page 1080
Open-Chain and Ring Compounds......Page 1082
Organic Families and Their Functional Groups......Page 1083
IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes......Page 1085
Alkyl Groups......Page 1087
Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 1089
23.3 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen......Page 1092
Alcohols and Ethers......Page 1093
Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 1095
Carboxylic Acids and Esters......Page 1097
Basicity and Reactions of Amines......Page 1100
Amides: Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids......Page 1101
23.5 Organic Polymers......Page 1102
Order within Polymer Molecules......Page 1103
Chain-Growth Polymers......Page 1104
Step-Growth Polymers......Page 1106
Physical Properties and Polymer Crystallinity......Page 1108
Carbohydrates......Page 1109
Lipids......Page 1111
Proteins......Page 1115
DNA and RNA......Page 1117
The DNA Double Helix......Page 1118
Genes and Polypeptide Synthesis......Page 1119
Summary......Page 1120
Tools for Problem Solving......Page 1122
Review Exercises......Page 1124
Review Problems......Page 1128
Additional Exercises......Page 1131
Exercises in Critical Thinking......Page 1132
Bringing It Together: Chapters 21–23......Page 1133
A.1 Exponential and Scientific Notation......Page 1135
A.2 Logarithms......Page 1138
A.3 Graphing......Page 1140
A.4 Method of Successive Approximations......Page 1143
A.5 Tips on Using Scientific Calculators......Page 1145
Appendix B: Answers to Practice Exercises and Selected Review Problems......Page 1149
Appendix C: Tables of Selected Data......Page 1173
Glossary......Page 1185
Index......Page 1205