Chemistry of Nanomaterials: Fundamentals and Applications

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Chemistry of Nanomaterials: Fundamentals and Applications
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Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
Part 1: Introduction to nanomaterials
1 Introduction
	1.1 What is nanoscience and nanotechnology?
		1.1.1 Nanoworld
		1.1.2 Nanoscience
			1.1.2.1 Nanoscience in nature
		1.1.3 Nanotechnology
			1.1.3.1 From nanoscience to nanotechnologies
	1.2 History of nanotechnology
		1.2.1 Feynman talks on small structures
		1.2.2 Emergence of nanotechnology
			1.2.2.1 First generation (beginning ∼2000)
			1.2.2.2 Second generation (beginning ∼2005)
			1.2.2.3 Third generation (beginning ∼2010)
			1.2.2.4 Fourth generation (beginning ∼2015–20)
	1.3 Nanometer scale
		1.3.1 Special at nanoscale
			1.3.1.1 Quantum effects
			1.3.1.2 Surface area-to-volume ratio
	1.4 Nanoparticles
		1.4.1 Types of nanoparticles
			1.4.1.1 Natural nanoparticles
			1.4.1.2 Anthropogenic nanoparticles
	1.5 Nanomaterials
		1.5.1 What are nanoparticles, nanotubes, and nanoplates?
		1.5.2 Classification of nanomaterials
			1.5.2.1 Zero-dimensional nanomaterials
			1.5.2.2 One-dimensional nanomaterials
			1.5.2.3 Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials
			1.5.2.4 Three-dimensional nanomaterial
	1.6 Applications and challenges in nanotechnologies
		1.6.1 Applications
			1.6.1.1 Nanotechnology in electronics
			1.6.1.2 Nanotechnology in the production of energy
			1.6.1.3 Nanotechnology in automobile industries
			1.6.1.4 Nanotechnology in cosmetics
			1.6.1.5 Nanotechnology in space technology
			1.6.1.6 Nanotechnology in medicine
			1.6.1.7 Nanotechnology in the textile industry
			1.6.1.8 Nanotechnology in home appliances
			1.6.1.9 Nanotechnology in the food industry
			1.6.1.10 Nanotechnology in sports equipment
		1.6.2 Challenges in nanotechnology
	References
2 Quantum effects
	2.1 Wave–particle duality
	2.2 Electromagnetic waves
	2.3 Energy quanta
	2.4 The de Broglie hypothesis
		2.4.1 Derivation
		2.4.2 Implications of de Broglie hypothesis
	2.5 Evidence for the wave nature of electrons
		2.5.1 Davisson–Germer experiment
		2.5.2 G. P. Thomson’s experiment
	2.6 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
	2.7 Quantum dots
	2.8 Moore’s law
		2.8.1 Moore’s second law
		2.8.2 Ultimate limits of the law
	2.9 Quantum tunneling
		2.9.1 Tunneling through a single potential barrier
		2.9.2 Applications
	2.10 Exercise
	References
	Further reading
3 Interfaces and surfaces
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Surface physics and chemistry
	3.3 Surface and interface
	3.4 Surface modification
		3.4.1 Methods of surface modification
			3.4.1.1 Surface scratching/roughening
			3.4.1.2 Surface patterning
			3.4.1.3 Chemical surface modification
			3.4.1.4 Thin films and surface coatings
			3.4.1.5 Pharmaceutical attachment to surfaces
			3.4.1.6 Drug delivery assistance by porous surface
	3.5 Thin-film deposition
		3.5.1 Deposition techniques
			3.5.1.1 Physical vapor deposition
				3.5.1.1.1 Vacuum deposition
					Thermal evaporation
					Electron beam evaporation
				3.5.1.1.2 Cladding
					Laser cladding
					Explosion cladding
				3.5.1.1.3 Sputtering
					Magnetron sputtering
				3.5.1.1.4 Arc welding
				3.5.1.1.5 Thermal spraying
			3.5.1.2 Chemical vapor deposition
				3.5.1.2.1 Atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition
				3.5.1.2.2 Low-pressure chemical vapor deposition
				3.5.1.2.3 Metal organic chemical vapor deposition
				3.5.1.2.4 Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
				3.5.1.2.5 Atomic layer deposition
				3.5.1.2.6 Electroplating
	3.6 Self-assembly
		3.6.1 Molecular self-assembly systems
		3.6.2 Idea of molecular self-assembly
		3.6.3 Equilibrium and nonequilibrium self-assembly
	References
4 Properties of nanomaterials
	4.1 Background history of subatomic particles
	4.2 Subatomic physics to chemical systems
		4.2.1 Types of chemical bonds
			4.2.1.1 Ionic bonds
			4.2.1.2 Covalent bonding
			4.2.1.3 Metallic bonds
			4.2.1.4 Van der Waals interactions
	4.3 Properties of nanomaterials
		4.3.1 Electrical properties
		4.3.2 Mechanical properties
			4.3.2.1 Hardness
			4.3.2.2 Elastic modulus
		4.3.3 Thermal properties
			4.3.3.1 Heat capacity
			4.3.3.2 Melting point
			4.3.3.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion
		4.3.4 Magnetic properties
		4.3.5 Optical properties
	References
	Further reading
5 Tools and instrumentation
	5.1 Microscopy
		5.1.1 Brief history
		5.1.2 Concept of microscopy
		5.1.3 Optical microscopy
			5.1.3.1 Simple microscope
				5.1.3.1.1 Magnification of simple microscope
			5.1.3.2 Compound microscope
				5.1.3.2.1 Magnification of compound microscope
			5.1.3.3 Limitations
			5.1.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages
		5.1.4 Various optical microscopic techniques
			5.1.4.1 Bright-field microscopy
			5.1.4.2 Dark-field microscopy
			5.1.4.3 Phase contrast microscopy
			5.1.4.4 Differential interference contrast microscopy
	5.2 Electron microscopy
		5.2.1 Electron interaction with material sample
		5.2.2 Working of electron microscopy
	5.3 Types of electron microscopy
		5.3.1 Scanning electron microscope
			5.3.1.1 Working of scanning electron microscope
			5.3.1.2 Advantages of scanning electron microscope
			5.3.1.3 Disadvantages of scanning electron microscope
			5.3.1.4 Limitations
		5.3.2 Transmission electron microscope
			5.3.2.1 Working of transmission electron microscope
			5.3.2.2 Advantages of transmission electron microscope
			5.3.2.3 Disadvantages of transmission electron microscopes
			5.3.2.4 Applications of transmission electron microscope
		5.3.3 Dissimilarities between scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope
	5.4 Scanning tunneling microscope
		5.4.1 Components and workings
			5.4.1.1 Various features of scanning tunneling microscope
	5.5 Atomic force microscopy
		5.5.1 Construction of atomic force microscope
			5.5.1.1 Laser
			5.5.1.2 Cantilever
			5.5.1.3 Scanner
			5.5.1.4 Photodetector
			5.5.1.5 Feedback electronics
			5.5.1.6 Sample
		5.5.2 Working principle of atomic force microscope
		5.5.3 Modes of operation
			5.5.3.1 Contact/repulsive mode
			5.5.3.2 Noncontact/attractive mode
			5.5.3.3 Tapping/intermittent mode
		5.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages
		5.5.5 Applications
	5.6 Fluorescence method
	5.7 Synchrotron radiation
	5.8 Atom probe instrument
		5.8.1 Construction
		5.8.2 Working of atom probe field ion microscopy
		5.8.3 Mathematical analysis
		5.8.4 Limitations of atom probe
		5.8.5 Comparison with tunneling electron microscope and SIMS
	References
6 Fabricating nanostructures
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Lithography
		6.2.1 Photolithography
			6.2.1.1 Steps of photolithography
				6.2.1.1.1 Surface preparation
				6.2.1.1.2 Oxidation
					Types of photoresist
				6.2.1.1.3 Masking
				6.2.1.1.4 Exposing to UV light
					Contact printing
					Proximity printing
					Projection printing
				6.2.1.1.5 Etching
		6.2.2 Electron beam lithography
			6.2.2.1 Procedure
				6.2.2.1.1 Coating by resist
				6.2.2.1.2 Deposition of metallic layer
				6.2.2.1.3 Aggressive solvent mixture
	6.3 Molecular beam epitaxy
		6.3.1 Molecular beam epitaxy process
			6.3.1.1 Epitaxial growth of crystalline layers on substrate
			6.3.1.2 Epitaxy types
				6.3.1.2.1 Homoepitaxy
				6.3.1.2.2 Heteroepitaxy
		6.3.2 Working principle
		6.3.3 Molecular beam epitaxy layout
		6.3.4 Features of molecular beam epitaxy
		6.3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of molecular beam epitaxy
		6.3.6 In situ growth monitoring techniques
	6.4 Self-assembled masks
		6.4.1 Distinctive features
		6.4.2 Order
		6.4.3 Interactions
		6.4.4 Building blocks
		6.4.5 Examples
		6.4.6 Properties
		6.4.7 Self-assembly at the macroscopic scale
	6.5 Focused ion beam
		6.5.1 The construction of focused ion beam
			6.5.1.1 The vacuum system
			6.5.1.2 The liquid metal ion source
			6.5.1.3 The ion column
			6.5.1.4 The sample stage
			6.5.1.5 The imaging detectors
			6.5.1.6 Gas source usage or deposition
			6.5.1.7 Dual platform
		6.5.2 Principle
		6.5.3 Applications of FIB
	6.6 Stamp technology stamping
		6.6.1 Operations
		6.6.2 Stamping lubricant
		6.6.3 Industrial applications
	References
Part 2: Interactions in nanomaterials
7 Electrons in nanostructures
	7.1 Introduction to electrons
		7.1.1 Importance of electrons in bonding
	7.2 Emission of electrons
		7.2.1 Thermionic emission
			7.2.1.1 Dependence of thermionic emission
		7.2.2 Field emission
		7.2.3 Photoelectric emission
		7.2.4 Secondary electron emission
	7.3 Variations in electronic properties of materials
		7.3.1 Electrical properties
		7.3.2 Optical properties
	7.4 Electrons in nanostructures
		7.4.1 Quantum effects of electrons in nanostructures
	7.5 Free electron model
	7.6 Bloch’s theorem
		7.6.1 Implications of Bloch’s theorem
	7.7 Band structure
		7.7.1 Energetic bands
		7.7.2 Band gaps
	7.8 Single electron transistor
		7.8.1 Operation of single electron transistor
		7.8.2 Applications
			7.8.2.1 Supersensitive electrometer
			7.8.2.2 Single electron spectroscopy
			7.8.2.3 Detection of infrared radiation
			7.8.2.4 Charge state logics
			7.8.2.5 Programmable single electron transistor logic
	7.9 Resonant tunneling
	References
8 Molecular electronics
	8.1 Molecular electronics
	8.2 Lewis structures
		8.2.1 Limitations
	8.3 Variational approach to calculate molecular orbitals
	8.4 Hybridization of atomic orbitals
	8.5 Donor acceptor properties
	8.6 Electron transfer between molecules
	8.7 Charge transport in weakly interacting molecular solids
	8.8 Single molecule electronics
		8.8.1 Theoretical background
		8.8.2 Examples
	References
9 Nanomaterials
	9.1 Introduction of nanomaterials
		9.1.1 Dimensionality
			9.1.1.1 Zero-dimensional nanomaterials
			9.1.1.2 One-dimensional nanomaterials
			9.1.1.3 Two-dimensional nanomaterials
			9.1.1.4 Three-dimensional nanomaterials
	9.2 Quantum dots
		9.2.1 Applications
			9.2.1.1 Optical applications
			9.2.1.2 Quantum computing
			9.2.1.3 Biological applications
	9.3 Nanowires
		9.3.1 Synthesis
		9.3.2 Properties of nanowires
			9.3.2.1 Magnetic properties
			9.3.2.2 Thermoelectric properties
			9.3.2.3 Electron transport properties
			9.3.2.4 Optical properties
		9.3.3 Applications of nanowires
	9.4 Nanophotonics
		9.4.1 Optoelectronics and microelectronics
		9.4.2 Basic principles
	9.5 Magnetic nanostructures
		9.5.1 Synthesis
		9.5.2 Properties of magnetic nanostructures
		9.5.3 Applications of magnetic nanostructures
	9.6 Nano thermal devices
	9.7 Nanofluidic devices
	9.8 Biomimetic materials
	References
Part 3: Applications of nanomaterials
10 Nanobiotechnology
	10.1 Introduction to Nanobiotechnology
	10.2 DNA microarrays
		10.2.1 Principle
		10.2.2 Applications
	10.3 DNA assembly of nanoparticles
		10.3.1 Uses
	10.4 Protein and DNA assembly
		10.4.1 Protein assembly
		10.4.2 DNA assembly
	10.5 Digital cells
	10.6 Genetic circuits
	10.7 DNA computing
	References
11 Nanotechnology: the road ahead
	11.1 Nanostructures
		11.1.1 Nanoscaled biomolecules
	11.2 Structure of carbon nanotubes
	11.3 Quantum dots (QDs)
		11.3.1 Properties of quantum dots
		11.3.2 Fabrication of quantum dots
	11.4 Energy harvesting and storage
		11.4.1 Piezoelectric nanogenerators
		11.4.2 Solar cells
		11.4.3 Electrochemical energy storage
			11.4.3.1 Rechargeable batteries
			11.4.3.2 Supercapacitors
			11.4.3.3 Fuel cell
	11.5 Quantum informatics
		11.5.1 Nanostructures in quantum informatics
			11.5.1.1 Semiconductor nanostructures in quantum computation
			11.5.1.2 Nanostructures for quantum information processing
	References
Glossary
Index
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