Chemistry and Biochemistry of Food

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Half Title
Also of Interest
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Food
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Contents
1. Food, nutrition, and diet
	1.1 Basic concepts
		1.1.1 Feeding, nutrition, food, and nutrients
		1.1.2 Diet and dietetics
		1.1.3 Biological roles of nutrients
	1.2 Factors that influence diet
	1.3 Nutritional requirements and basic recommendations
	1.4 Sustainability
	1.5 Personalized dietary patterns
	References
2. Water
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Water as a nutrient
	2.3 Water balance in the body: inputs, outputs, and regulation
	2.4 Water requirements
	2.5 Water resources and supply
	2.6 The importance of water in food production
	2.7 The importance of water in the properties of foods
	References
3. Carbohydrates
	3.1 Definition, terminology, and classification
	3.2 Monosaccharides and oligosaccharides
		3.2.1 Monosaccharides
		3.2.2 Cyclic forms of monosaccharides
		3.2.3 Disaccharides and oligosaccharides
		3.2.4 Derivatives of monosaccharides
	3.3 Vitamin C
		3.3.1 Properties and biosynthesis
		3.3.2 Biological roles
		3.3.3 Role of L-ascorbate in cancer prevention and treatment
		3.3.4 Occurrence, stability, and dietary reference values for vitamin C
	3.4 Polysaccharides: fiber
		3.4.1 Starch
		3.4.2 Glycogen
		3.4.3 Cellulose
		3.4.4 Other important polysaccharides in human nutrition: dietary fiber
	3.5 Properties and importance of carbohydrates in the food industry
	3.6 Browning reactions of sugars
	3.7 Importance of carbohydrates in the diet
	3.8 Metabolism of carbohydrates: glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
		3.8.1 Glycolysis
		3.8.2 Gluconeogenesis
		3.8.3 Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
		3.8.4 Glycogen synthesis and degradation
		3.8.5 Pentose phosphate pathway of glucose oxidation
	3.9 Regulation of blood glucose
	3.10 Diabetes: types, metabolic changes, and dietary recommendations
		3.10.1 Type I diabetes mellitus (T1DM)
		3.10.2 Type II diabetes mellitus (T2DM)
	3.11 Other problems related to the metabolism of carbohydrates
	References
4. Lipids
	4.1 Definition and classification
	4.2 Fatty acids
		4.2.1 Nomenclature of fatty acids
	4.3 Triacylglycerides: edible fats and oils
	4.4 Production of oils and fats for human consumption
		4.4.1 Animal sources
		4.4.2 Vegetable sources
	4.5 Oil refining
	4.6 Deterioration of oils and fats
		4.6.1 Lipolysis
		4.6.2 Lipid oxidation
	4.7 Importance in the diet: fat as energy source
	4.8 Olive oil: the healthy oil
		4.8.1 Types of olive oil
		4.8.2 The unsaponifiable fraction of olive oil
	4.9 Fat and adipose tissue
		4.9.1 Lipids from the diet: digestion and absorption
		4.9.2 Lipids from the adipose tissue: mobilization of TAGs
	4.10 Degradation and biosynthesis of fatty acids in animals
		4.10.1 Fatty acid degradation
		4.10.2 Biosynthesis of fatty acids
		4.10.3 Regulation of the metabolism of fatty acids
		4.10.4 Metabolism of the ketone bodies
	4.11 Essential fatty acids: metabolism of arachidonate
	4.12 Nonhydrolyzable lipids: importance in the diet
		4.12.1 Carotenoids
		4.12.2 Steroids
	4.13 Metabolism of cholesterol
	4.14 Cholesterol and lipid transport in the bloodstream: apolipoprotein
	4.15 Lipids and the mechanism of atherogenesis
	References
5. Proteins
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Functions of proteins
	5.3 Requirements of proteins in human nutrition
		5.3.1 Importance of protein in the diet: essential amino acids and evaluation of protein quality
	5.4 Protein sources and composition
		5.4.1 Plant-based protein
			5.4.1.1 Cereal proteins
			5.4.1.2 Pulses
			5.4.1.3 Sustainable production of plant-based protein
		5.4.2 Animal-based protein
			5.4.2.1 Meat
			5.4.2.2 Milk and dairy products
			5.4.2.3 Eggs
			5.4.2.4 Fish
		5.4.3 New and emerging sources of protein (see Chapter 16)
		5.4.4 Protein energy malnutrition
	5.5 Hydrolysis and denaturing of proteins
	5.6 Functional properties of proteins
	5.7 Protein deterioration by microorganisms
		5.7.1 The Ehrlich pathway
		5.7.2 Production of biogenic amines
		5.7.3 Stickland reaction
	5.8 Amino acid metabolism: interconversion and degradation
		5.8.1 Transamination
		5.8.2 Deamination
	5.9 Metabolic fate of ammonium: the urea cycle
	5.10 Proteins and adverse reactions to foods
		5.10.1 Food adverse reactions with an immune basis
		5.10.2 Amino acid disorders
	5.11 Other nitrogen-containing nutrients: nucleotides
		5.11.1 Definition and general concepts
		5.11.2 The role of nucleotides in nutrition
		5.11.3 Nucleotide disorders
		5.11.4 Hyperuricidemia: gout
	References
6. Vitamins
	6.1 Concept and classification
	6.2 History
	6.3 Structure and in vivo function of water-soluble vitamins
		6.3.1 Vitamin B1 (thiamin or thiamine)
			6.3.1.1 Structure
			6.3.1.2 In vivo function
			6.3.1.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.3.1.4 Stability
			6.3.1.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.3.2 Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
			6.3.2.1 Structure
			6.3.2.2 In vivo function
			6.3.2.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.3.2.4 Stability
			6.3.2.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.3.3 Vitamin B3 (niacin)
			6.3.3.1 Structure
			6.3.3.2 In vivo function
			6.3.3.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.3.3.4 Stability
			6.3.3.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.3.4 Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)
			6.3.4.1 Structure
			6.3.4.2 In vivo function
			6.3.4.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.3.4.4 Stability
			6.3.4.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.3.5 Vitamin B6
			6.3.5.1 Structure
			6.3.5.2 In vivo function
			6.3.5.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.3.5.4 Stability
			6.3.5.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.3.6 Biotin (vitamin B7/H)
			6.3.6.1 Structure
			6.3.6.2 In vivo function
			6.3.6.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.3.6.4 Stability
			6.3.6.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.3.7 Vitamin B9 (folic acid)
			6.3.7.1 Structure
			6.3.7.2 In vivo function
			6.3.7.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.3.7.4 Stability
			6.3.7.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.3.8 Vitamin B12
			6.3.8.1 Structure
			6.3.8.2 In vivo function
			6.3.8.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.3.8.4 Stability
			6.3.8.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.3.9 Vitamins of complex B and gut microbiota
		6.3.10 B vitamins and mitochondrial function
	6.4 Structure and in vivo function of lipid-soluble vitamins
		6.4.1 Vitamin A
			6.4.1.1 Structure
			6.4.1.2 In vivo function
			6.4.1.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.4.1.4 Stability
			6.4.1.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.4.2 Vitamin D
			6.4.2.1 Structure
			6.4.2.2 In vivo function
			6.4.2.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.4.2.4 Stability
			6.4.2.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.4.3 Vitamin E
			6.4.3.1 Structure
			6.4.3.2 In vivo function
			6.4.3.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.4.3.4 Stability
			6.4.3.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
		6.4.4 Vitamin K
			6.4.4.1 Structure
			6.4.4.2 In vivo function
			6.4.4.3 Sources and bioavailability
			6.4.4.4 Stability
			6.4.4.5 Dietary Reference Values (DRVs): hypo- and hypervitaminosis
	6.5 Vitamin-like or conditionally essential nutrients (CENs)
	References
7. Minerals
	7.1 Definition and classification
	7.2 Macroelements
		7.2.1 Electrolytes: Na+, K+, and Cl−
			7.2.1.1 Biological roles
			7.2.1.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.2.1.3 Electrolytes status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.2.1.4 Sodium, potassium, and chloride deficiency
			7.2.1.5 Electrolytes excess
			7.2.1.6 Acid–base metabolism and electrolytes
		7.2.2 Calcium
			7.2.2.1 Biological roles
			7.2.2.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.2.2.3 Calcium status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.2.2.4 Calcium deficiency
			7.2.2.5 Calcium excess
		7.2.3 Phosphorus
			7.2.3.1 Biological roles
			7.2.3.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.2.3.3 Phosphorus status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.2.3.4 Phosphorus deficiency
			7.2.3.5 Phosphorus excess
		7.2.4 Magnesium
			7.2.4.1 Biological roles
			7.2.4.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.2.4.3 Magnesium status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.2.4.4 Magnesium deficiency
			7.2.4.5 Magnesium excess
	7.3 Microelements
		7.3.1 Iron
			7.3.1.1 Biological roles
			7.3.1.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.3.1.3 Iron status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.3.1.4 Iron deficiency
			7.3.1.5 Iron excess
		7.3.2 Zinc
			7.3.2.1 Biological roles
			7.3.2.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.3.2.3 Zinc status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.3.2.4 Zinc deficiency
			7.3.2.5 Zinc excess
		7.3.3 Copper
			7.3.3.1 Biological roles
			7.3.3.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.3.3.3 Copper status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.3.3.4 Copper deficiency
			7.3.3.5 Copper excess
		7.3.4 Iodine
			7.3.4.1 Biological roles
			7.3.4.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.3.4.3 Iodine status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.3.4.4 Iodine deficiency
			7.3.4.5 Iodine excess
			7.3.5 Selenium
		7.3.5 Selenium
			7.3.5.1 Biological roles
			7.3.5.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.3.5.3 Selenium status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.3.5.4 Selenium deficiency
			7.3.5.5 Selenium excess
		7.3.6 Manganese
			7.3.6.1 Biological roles
			7.3.6.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.3.6.3 Manganese status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.3.6.4 Manganese deficiency
			7.3.6.5 Manganese excess
		7.3.7 Molybdenum
			7.3.7.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.3.7.1 Biological roles
			7.3.7.3 Molybdenum status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.3.7.4 Molybdenum deficiency
			7.3.7.5 Molybdenum excess
	7.4 Elements whose essentiality has not been established in humans
		7.4.1 Chromium
			7.4.1.1 Biological roles
			7.4.1.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.4.1.3 Chromium status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.4.1.4 Chromium deficiency
			7.4.1.5 Chromium excess
		7.4.2 Fluorine
			7.4.2.1 Biological roles
			7.4.2.2 Sources, bioavailability, and homeostasis
			7.4.2.3 Fluoride status, Dietary Reference Values (DRVs)
			7.4.2.4 Fluoride deficiency
			7.4.2.5 Fluoride excess
		7.4.3 Boron
		7.4.4 Silicon
	References
8. Oxidative stress and antioxidants in nutrition
	8.1 Oxygen and its toxicity
	8.2 Formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other free radicals in vivo
		8.2.1 The concept of free radical
		8.2.2 Sources of free radicals
			8.2.2.1 Endogenous sources
			8.2.2.2 Exogenous sources
	8.3 Biological damage by ROS
		8.3.1 Damage to lipids
		8.3.2 Damage to proteins
		8.3.3 DNA damage
		8.3.4 Cholesterol damage
	8.4 Natural defenses
		8.4.1 Antioxidant enzyme system
		8.4.2 Nonenzymatic antioxidant systems
	8.5 Antioxidant nutrients
		8.5.1 Vitamin E
		8.5.2 Vitamin C
		8.5.3 Carotenoids
		8.5.4 Phenolic compounds
	8.6 Repair systems
		8.6.1 Direct
		8.6.2 Indirect
	8.7 Oxidative stress and health
		8.7.1 Oxidative stress and cardiovascular pathology
			8.7.1.1 Oxidation of LDL
		8.7.2 Oxidative stress and inflammation processes
	8.8 Mechanisms of ROS elimination
	References
9. The biochemistry of flavor perception
	9.1 Definition of flavor
	9.2 Taste
		9.2.1 Sweet taste
		9.2.2 Umami taste
		9.2.3 Bitter taste
		9.2.4 Sour taste
		9.2.5 Salty taste
		9.2.6 Fat taste
		9.2.7 Other tastes
		9.2.8 The neuroendocrinology of taste
	9.3 Olfaction
	9.4 Flavor formation in foods
		9.4.1 The role of saliva in flavor formation and perception
	References
10. Food additives
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Definition of food additive
		10.2.1 Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)
	10.3 Classification of food additives
		10.3.1 International numbering system of food additives: E number
	10.4 Food colorings
	10.5 Food stabilizers for chemical and biological alterations
	10.6 Structural food stabilizers
	10.7 Sweeteners
	10.8 Flavorings and flavor enhancers
	10.9 Others
		10.9.1 Food enzymes
	References
11. Food safety
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Biological foodborne diseases of microbial origin
	11.3 Biological foodborne diseases of nonmicrobial origin
	11.4 Abiotic foodborne diseases
	11.5 Food hygiene: food safety from production to consumption
		11.5.1 Legislation and reference bodies
		11.5.2 Hygienic design for food industry
		11.5.3 Food alert network
		11.5.4 Emerging risks
	References
12. The biochemistry of digestion
	12.1 Introduction: functional organization of the digestive system and associated organs
		12.1.1 Gastrointestinal wall
		12.1.2 Gastrointestinal blood flow: splanchnic circulation
		12.1.3 Neural regulation of gastrointestinal function
		12.1.4 Chemical regulation of gastrointestinal function
		12.1.5 Membrane potential in the GIT
	12.2 The mouth: phases of swallowing
		12.2.1 Cephalic phase
		12.2.2 Oral phase
		12.2.3 Pharyngeal phase
		12.2.4 Esophageal phase
	12.3 Stomach. Functional structure. Secretion. Postprandial activity and gastric motility
		12.3.1 Gastric secretion
		12.3.2 Gastric function: objectives
		12.3.3 Regulation of gastric secretion
		12.3.4 Gastric motility
		12.3.5 Regulation of gastric emptying
	12.4 Pancreas
		12.4.1 Physiology of exocrine pancreas
		12.4.2 Physiology of endocrine pancreas
		12.4.3 Regulation of exocrine secretion
		12.4.4 Summary of pancreas functions
	12.5 The liver: structure. Hepatic secretion: storage and regulation
		12.5.1 Bile production by the hepatocytes
		12.5.2 Synthesis of bile acids
		12.5.3 Regulation of liver secretion and vesicular emptying
		12.5.4 Functions of bile salts
		12.5.5 Liver functions (discussed in Chapter 14, Section 14.6)
	12.6 Small intestine
		12.6.1 Digestion in the small intestine
			12.6.1.1 Chemical digestion
			12.6.1.2 Mechanical digestion: motility
			12.6.1.3 Regulation of small intestine motility
		12.6.2 Composition of intestinal secretions
		12.6.3 Small bowel emptying
		12.6.4 Functions of the small intestine
	12.7 Large intestine. Functional structure. Absorption and secretion. Motility of the colon: peristalsis and mass movements. Defecation
		12.7.1 Motility of the colon
		12.7.2 Chemical digestion in the large intestine
		12.7.3 The rectum
		12.7.4 Defecation reflex
		12.7.5 Feces composition
		12.7.6 Functions of the large intestine
	12.8 The microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract and its functions
	Articles and textbooks used for the elaboration of Chapter 12
13. Absorption of nutrients
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Transport pathways across the small intestine epithelium
	13.3 Absorption of carbohydrates
	13.4 Absorption of amino acids and oligopeptides
	13.5 Absorption of lipids
		13.5.1 Uptake of free long chain fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, and lysophospholipids by enterocytes
		13.5.2 Uptake of sterols and fat-soluble vitamins D, E, and K
		13.5.3 Uptake of vitamin A and carotenoids
		13.5.4 Intracellular processing of dietary lipids within the enterocyte
	13.6 Absorption of water soluble vitamins
	13.7 Absorption of minerals
		13.7.1 Water and electrolytes (Figure 13.6)
		13.7.2 Calcium (Figure 13.7)
		13.7.3 Phosphorus (Figure 13.8)
		13.7.4 Magnesium (Figure 13.9)
		13.7.5 Iron (Figure 13.10)
		13.7.6 Zinc (Figure 13.11)
		13.7.7 Copper (Figure 13.11)
		13.7.8 Iodide
		13.7.9 Selenium
		13.7.10 Manganese absorption
		13.7.11 Other microelements
	13.8 Absorption in the large intestine
	References
14. Energy homeostasis and integration of metabolism
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Energy homeostasis and energy balance
		14.2.1 Energy utilization: the fate of the energy within the body
		14.2.2 Energy intake: the energy content of nutrients
		14.2.3 Mechanisms of energy homeostasis
	14.3 The adipose tissue as an endocrine organ
		14.3.1 Leptin
		14.3.2 Adiponectin
		14.3.3 Lipokines
	14.4 Pancreatic hormones
		14.4.1 Insulin
		14.4.2 Glucagon
	14.5 Gut hormones
	14.6 The liver
		14.6.1 Control of hepatic function
		14.6.2 Metabolites of the liver affecting other tissues
	14.7 Other hormones that affect energy metabolism
	14.8 Obesity
		14.8.1 Definition and measure of obesity
		14.8.2 The prevalence of obesity
		14.8.3 Causes of obesity
		14.8.4 Obesity, health, and evolution
		14.8.5 The role of epigenetics
		14.8.6 Obesity and dietary patterns
	References
15. The Mediterranean diet
	15.1 Origins of the Mediterranean diet
	15.2 The concept of Mediterranean diet
	15.3 Benefits of the Mediterranean diet
	15.4 Adherence to the Mediterranean diet
	15.5 Current Mediterranean diet
	Bibliography
16. The foods of the future
	16.1 Demographic boom
	16.2 Food production and environmental impact
		16.2.1 Impact of agriculture
		16.2.2 Impact of livestock
		16.2.3 Fishing impact
	16.3 Innovations in food production
		16.3.1 Urban agriculture
		16.3.2 Aquaculture
	16.4 Genetically modified foods
		16.4.1 Knock-out foods
		16.4.2 Transgenic foods
		16.4.3 Cisgenic foods
		16.4.4 Edited foods
	16.5 Alternative foods
		16.5.1 Insects: source of quality protein
		16.5.2 Milk analog
	16.6 Functional foods
		16.6.1 Nutraceuticals
		16.6.2 Functional milk
	16.7 Therapeutic foods
		16.7.1 Therapeutic milk
	16.8 Probiotics, prebiotics, and symbiotics
		16.8.1 Genetic modification of probiotics
	16.9 Cellular agriculture
		16.9.1 Single cell protein
			16.9.1.1 Microalgae: source of protein quality and nutraceuticals
			16.9.1.2 Mycoprotein: meat substitute
		16.9.2 Cultured meat
		16.9.3 Lab-grown milk
	16.10 Conclusions
	Bibliography
Appendix 1: Dietary reference values
Appendix 2: Reference intakes (RI) for total fat and carbohydrates and adequate intakes (AIs) for fatty acids, dietary fiber, and water
Appendix 3: Summary of average requirement (AR) for energy expressed in kcal/day for different groups of population
	Infants
	Children and adolescents
	Adults
	Notes
	References and more detailed information
Appendix 4: Alcohol as a nutrient
	References and further reading
Index