Chemistry : structure and properties

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Author
Contents
Preface
E: Essentials: Units, Measurement, and Problem Solving
	E.1 The Metric Mix-up: A $125 Million Unit Error
	E.2 The Units of Measurement
		The Standard Units
		The Meter: A Measure of Length
		The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass
		The Second: A Measure of Time
		The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature
		Prefix Multipliers
		Units of Volume
	E.3 The Reliability of a Measurement
		Reporting Measurements to Reflect Certainty
		Precision and Accuracy
	E.4 Significant Figures in Calculations
		Counting Significant Figures
		Exact Numbers
		Significant Figures in Calculations
	E.5 Density
	E.6 Energy and Its Units
		The Nature of Energy
		Energy Units
		Quantifying Changes in Energy
	E.7 Converting between Units
	E.8 Problem-Solving Strategies
		Units Raised to a Power
		Order-of-Magnitude Estimations
	E.9 Solving Problems Involving Equations
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
1 Atoms
	1.1 A Particulate View of the World: Structure Determines Properties
	1.2 Classifying Matter: A Particulate View
		The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
		Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
	1.3 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge
		Creativity and Subjectivity in Science
	1.4 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter
	1.5 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It
		The Law of Conservation of Mass
		The Law of Definite Proportions
		The Law of Multiple Proportions
		John Dalton and the Atomic Theory
	1.6 The Discovery of the Electron
		Cathode Rays
		Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron
	1.7 The Structure of the Atom
	1.8 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
		Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons
		Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies
		Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons
	1.9 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
		Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules
	1.10 Atoms and the Mole: How Many Particles?
		The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen”
		Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms
		Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles)
	1.11 The Origins of Atoms and Elements
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
2 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
	2.1 Schrödinger’s Cat
	2.2 The Nature of Light
		The Wave Nature of Light
		The Electromagnetic Spectrum
		Interference and Diffraction
		The Particle Nature of Light
	2.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model
		Atomic Spectra
		The Bohr Model
		Atomic Spectroscopy and the Identification of Elements
	2.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy
		The de Broglie Wavelength
		The Uncertainty Principle
		Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps
	2.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom
		Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom
		Atomic Spectroscopy Explained
	2.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
		s Orbitals (l = 0)
		p Orbitals (l = 1)
		d Orbitals (l = 2)
		f Orbitals (l = 3)
		The Phase of Orbitals
		The Shape of Atoms
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
3 Periodic Properties of the Elements
	3.1 Aluminum: Low-Density Atoms Result in Low-Density Metal
	3.2 The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
	3.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals
		Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
		Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multi-electron Atoms
		Electron Configurations for Multi-electron Atoms
	3.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table
		Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table
		Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table
		The Transition and Inner Transition Elements
	3.5 Electron Configurations and Elemental Properties
		Metals and Nonmetals
		Families of Elements
		The Formation of Ions
	3.6 Periodic Trends in Atomic Size and Effective Nuclear Charge
		Effective Nuclear Charge
		Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements
	3.7 Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Radii, and Ionization Energy
		Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions
		Ionic Radii
		Ionization Energy
		Trends in First Ionization Energy
		Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy
		Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies
	3.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character
		Electron Affinity
		Metallic Character
	3.9 Periodic Trends Summary
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
4 Molecules and Compounds
	4.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water
	4.2 Types of Chemical Bonds
	4.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models
		Types of Chemical Formulas
		Molecular Models
	4.4 The Lewis Model: Representing Valence Electrons with Dots
	4.5 Ionic Bonding: The Lewis Model and Lattice Energies
		Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer
		Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story
		Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality
	4.6 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names
		Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
		Naming Ionic Compounds
		Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation
		Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Type of Cation
		Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
		Hydrated Ionic Compounds
	4.7 Covalent Bonding: Simple Lewis Structures
		Single Covalent Bonds
		Double and Triple Covalent Bonds
		Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality
	4.8 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
	4.9 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds
		Molar Mass of a Compound
		Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing
	4.10 Composition of Compounds
		Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor
		Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas
	4.11 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data
		Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds
		Combustion Analysis
	4.12 Organic Compounds
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
5 Chemical Bonding I
	5.1 Morphine: A Molecular Impostor
	5.2 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
		Electronegativity
		Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character
	5.3 Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions
		Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds
		Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions
	5.4 Resonance and Formal Charge
		Resonance
		Formal Charge
	5.5 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded Octets
		Odd-Electron Species
		Incomplete Octets
		Expanded Octets
	5.6 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths
		Bond Energy
		Bond Length
	5.7 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes
		Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry
		Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry
		Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry
		Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry
		Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry
	5.8 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs
		Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
		Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
		Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
	5.9 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries
		Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper
		Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules
	5.10 Molecular Shape and Polarity
		Polarity in Diatomic Molecules
		Polarity in Polyatomic Molecules
		Vector Addition
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
6 Chemical Bonding II
	6.1 Oxygen: A Magnetic Liquid
	6.2 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond
	6.3 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
		sp[Sup(3)] Hybridization
		sp[Sup(2)] Hybridization and Double Bonds
		sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds
		sp[Sup(3)]d and sp[Sup(3)]d[Sup(2)] Hybridization
		Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes
	6.4 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization
		Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
		Second-Period Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
		Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules
	6.5 Molecular Orbital Theory: Polyatomic Molecules
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Quantities
	7.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels
	7.2 Chemical and Physical Change
	7.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
	7.4 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide?
		Making Pizza: The Relationships among Ingredients
		Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions
		Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions
	7.5 Stoichiometric Relationships: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, Percent Yield, and Reactant in Excess
		Limiting Reactant and Yield
		Reactant in Excess
	7.6 Three Examples of Chemical Reactions: Combustion, Alkali Metals, and Halogens
		Combustion Reactions
		Alkali Metal Reactions
		Halogen Reactions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
8 Introduction to Solutions and Aqueous Reactions
	8.1 Molecular Gastronomy
	8.2 Solution Concentration
		Quantifying Solution Concentration
		Using Molarity in Calculations
		Solution Dilution
	8.3 Solution Stoichiometry
	8.4 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility
		Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions
		The Solubility of Ionic Compounds
	8.5 Precipitation Reactions
	8.6 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations
	8.7 Acid–Base Reactions
		Properties of Acids and Bases
		Naming Binary Acids
		Naming Oxyacids
		Acid–Base Reactions
		Acid–Base Titrations
	8.8 Gas-Evolution Reactions
	8.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
		Oxidation States
		Identifying Redox Reactions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
9 Thermochemistry
	9.1 Fire and Ice
	9.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions
	9.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch
	9.4 Quantifying Heat and Work
		Heat
		Work: Pressure–Volume Work
	9.5 Measuring ΔE for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry
	9.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure
		Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Particulate View
		Stoichiometry Involving ΔH: Thermochemical Equations
	9.7 Measuring ΔH for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
	9.8 Relationships Involving ΔH[Sup(rxn)]
	9.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Bond Energies
	9.10 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation
		Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes
		Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction
	9.11 Lattice Energies for Ionic Compounds
		Calculating Lattice Energy: The Born–Haber Cycle
		Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size
		Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
10 Gases
	10.1 Supersonic Skydiving and the Risk of Decompression
	10.2 A Particulate Model for Gases: Kinetic Molecular Theory
	10.3 Pressure: The Result of Particle Collisions
		Pressure Units
		The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory
	10.4 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law
		Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure
		Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature
		Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles)
	10.5 The Ideal Gas Law
		The Ideal Gas Law Encompasses the Simple Gas Laws
		Calculations Using the Ideal Gas Law
		Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law
	10.6 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas
		Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure
		Density of a Gas
		Molar Mass of a Gas
	10.7 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures
		Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressures
		Collecting Gases over Water
	10.8 Temperature and Molecular Velocities
	10.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases
	10.10 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited
		Molar Volume and Stoichiometry
	10.11 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces
		The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles
		The Effect of Intermolecular Forces
		Van der Waals Equation
		Real Gas Behavior
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
	11.1 Water, No Gravity
	11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison
		Properties of the States of Matter
		Changes between States
	11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together
		Dispersion Force
		Dipole–Dipole Force
		Hydrogen Bonding
		Ion–Dipole Force
	11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action
		Surface Tension
		Viscosity
		Capillary Action
	11.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure
		The Process of Vaporization
		The Energetics of Vaporization
		Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium
		Temperature Dependence of Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
		The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter
	11.6 Sublimation and Fusion
		Sublimation
		Fusion
		Energetics of Melting and Freezing
	11.7 Heating Curve for Water
	11.8 Phase Diagrams
		The Major Features of a Phase Diagram
		Navigation within a Phase Diagram
		The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances
	11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
12 Crystalline Solids and Modern Materials
	12.1 Friday Night Experiments: The Discovery of Graphene
	12.2 Crystalline Solids: Determining Their Structures by X-Ray Crystallography
	12.3 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures
		The Unit Cell
		Closest-Packed Structures
	12.4 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types
		Molecular Solids
		Ionic Solids
		Atomic Solids
	12.5 The Structures of Ionic Solids
	12.6 Network Covalent Atomic Solids: Carbon and Silicates
		Carbon
		Silicates
	12.7 Ceramics, Cement, and Glass
		Ceramics
		Cement
		Glass
	12.8 Semiconductors and Band Theory
		Molecular Orbitals and Energy Bands
		Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors
	12.9 Polymers and Plastics
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
13 Solutions
	13.1 Antifreeze in Frogs
	13.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility
		Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy
		The Effect of Intermolecular Forces
	13.3 Energetics of Solution Formation
		Energy Changes in Solution Formation
		Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration
	13.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility
		The Effect of Temperature on the Solubility of Solids
		Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water
	13.5 Expressing Solution Concentration
		Molarity
		Molality
		Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume
		Mole Fraction and Mole Percent
	13.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure
		Vapor Pressure Lowering
		Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute
		Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation
		Osmotic Pressure
	13.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions
		Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure
		Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
14 Chemical Kinetics
	14.1 Catching Lizards
	14.2 Rates of Reaction and the Particulate Nature of Matter
		The Concentration of the Reactant Particles
		The Temperature of the Reactant Mixture
		The Structure and Orientation of the Colliding Particles
	14.3 Defining and Measuring the Rate of a Chemical Reaction
		Defining Reaction Rate
		Measuring Reaction Rates
	14.4 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate
		Reaction Orders
		Determining the Order of a Reaction
		Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants
	14.5 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time
		Integrated Rate Laws
		The Half-Life of a Reaction
	14.6 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
		The Arrhenius Equation
		Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy
		The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor
	14.7 Reaction Mechanisms
		Rate Laws for Elementary Steps
		Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws
		Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step
	14.8 Catalysis
		Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis
		Enzymes: Biological Catalysts
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
15 Chemical Equilibrium
	15.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium
	15.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium
	15.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K)
		Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions
		The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant
		Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation
	15.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure
		Units of K
	15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids
	15.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations
	15.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change
	15.8 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations
		Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants and Products
		Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures
		Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems
	15.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances
		The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium
		The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium
		The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
16 Acids and Bases
	16.1 Batman’s Basic Blunder
	16.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases
	16.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases
		The Arrhenius Definition
		The Brønsted–Lowry Definition
	16.4 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure
		Binary Acids
		Oxyacids
	16.5 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization Constant (K[Sub(a)])
		Strong Acids
		Weak Acids
		The Acid Ionization Constant (K[Sub(a)])
	16.6 Autoionization of Water and pH
		Specifying the Acidity or Basicity of a Solution: The pH Scale
		pOH and Other p Scales
	16.7 Finding the [H[Sub(3)]O[Sup(+)]] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions
		Strong Acids
		Weak Acids
		Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid
		Mixtures of Acids
	16.8 Finding the [OH[Sup(-)]] and pH of Strong and Weak Base Solutions
		Strong Bases
		Weak Bases
		Finding the [OH[Sup(-)]] and pH of Basic Solutions
	16.9 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts
		Anions as Weak Bases
		Cations as Weak Acids
		Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral
	16.10 Polyprotic Acids
		Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions
		Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution
	16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases
		Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids
		Cations That Act as Lewis Acids
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Analysis and Interpretation
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
17 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium
	17.1 The Danger of Antifreeze
	17.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
		Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution
		The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation
		Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution
		Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid
	17.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity
		Relative Amounts of Acid and Base
		Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base
		Buffer Range
		Buffer Capacity
	17.4 Titrations and pH Curves
		The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base
		The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base
		The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid
		The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid
		Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors
	17.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility-Product Constant
		K[Sub(sp)] and Molar Solubility
		K[Sub(sp)] and Relative Solubility
		The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility
		The Effect of pH on Solubility
	17.6 Precipitation
		Q and K[Sub(sp)]
		Selective Precipitation
	17.7 Complex Ion Equilibria
		The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility
		The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
18 Free Energy and Thermodynamics
	18.1 Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You Can’t Break Even
	18.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes
	18.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
		Entropy
		The Second Law of Thermodynamics
		The Entropy Change upon the Expansion of an Ideal Gas
	18.4 Entropy Changes Associated with State Changes
		Entropy and State Change: The Concept
		Entropy and State Changes: The Calculation
	18.5 Heat Transfer and Entropy Changes of the Surroundings
		The Temperature Dependence of ΔS[Sub(surr)]
		Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings
	18.6 Gibbs Free Energy
		Defining Gibbs Free Energy
		The Effect of ΔH, ΔS, and T on Spontaneity
	18.7 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ΔS°[Sub(rxn)]
		Defining Standard States and Standard Entropy Changes
		Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics
		Calculating the Standard Entropy Change (ΔS°[Sub(rxn)] for a Reaction
	18.8 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ΔG°[Sub(rxn)]
		Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes with ΔG°[Sub(rxn)]=ΔH°[Sub(rxn)] – TΔS°[Sub(rxn)]
		Calculating ΔG°[Sub(a)] with Tabulated Values of Free Energies of Formation
		Calculating ΔG°[Sub(a)] for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps
		Making a Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous
		Why Free Energy Is “Free”
	18.9 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship between ΔG°[Sub(rxn)] and ΔG°[Sub(rxn)]
		Standard versus Nonstandard States
		The Free Energy Change of a Reaction under Nonstandard Conditions
	18.10 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating ΔG°[Sub(rxn)] to the Equilibrium Constant (K)
		The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Constant
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
19 Electrochemistry
	19.1 Lightning and Batteries
	19.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations
	19.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions
		The Voltaic Cell
		Electrical Current and Potential Difference
		Anode, Cathode, and Salt Bridge
		Electrochemical Cell Notation
	19.4 Standard Electrode Potentials
		Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction
		Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid
	19.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant
		The Relationship between ΔG° and and E°[Sub(cell)]
		The Relationship between E°[Sub(cell)] and K
	19.6 Cell Potential and Concentration
		Cell Potential under Nonstandard Conditions: The Nernst Equation
		Concentration Cells
	19.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity
		Dry-Cell Batteries
		Lead–Acid Storage Batteries
		Other Rechargeable Batteries
		Fuel Cells
	19.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity
		Predicting the Products of Electrolysis
		Stoichiometry of Electrolysis
	19.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
20 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
	20.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis
	20.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity
	20.3 Types of Radioactivity
		Alpha α Decay
		Beta β Decay
		Gamma γ Ray Emission
		Positron Emission
		Electron Capture
	20.4 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity
		Magic Numbers
		Radioactive Decay Series
		The Integrated Rate Law
		Radiocarbon Dating
		Uranium/Lead Dating
	20.5 Detecting Radioactivity
	20.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating
	20.7 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power
		The Atomic Bomb
		Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity
	20.8 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy
		The Conversion of Mass to Energy
		Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy
		The Nuclear Binding Energy Curve
	20.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun
	20.10 Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements
	20.11 The Effects of Radiation on Life
		Acute Radiation Damage
		Increased Cancer Risk
		Genetic Defects
		Measuring Radiation Exposure and Dose
	20.12 Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications
		Diagnosis in Medicine
		Radiotherapy in Medicine
		Other Applications for Radioactivity
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
21 Organic Chemistry
	21.1 Fragrances and Odors
	21.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique
		Carbon’s Tendency to Form Four Covalent Bonds
		Carbon’s Ability to Form Double and Triple Bonds
		Carbon’s Tendency to Catenate
	21.3 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen
		Drawing Hydrocarbon Structures
		Stereoisomerism and Optical Isomerism
	21.4 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons
		Naming Alkanes
	21.5 Alkenes and Alkynes
		Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
		Geometric (Cis–Trans) Isomerism in Alkenes
	21.6 Hydrocarbon Reactions
		Reactions of Alkanes
		Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes
	21.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
	21.8 Functional Groups
	21.9 Alcohols
		Naming Alcohols
		About Alcohols
		Alcohol Reactions
	21.10 Aldehydes and Ketones
		Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
		About Aldehydes and Ketones
		Aldehyde and Ketone Reactions
	21.11 Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		About Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		Carboxylic Acid and Ester Reactions
	21.12 Ethers
		Naming Ethers
		About Ethers
	21.13 Amines
		Amine Reactions
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
22 Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds
	22.1 The Colors of Rubies and Emeralds
	22.2 Properties of Transition Metals
		Electron Configuration
		Atomic Size
		Ionization Energy
		Electronegativity
		Oxidation State
	22.3 Coordination Compounds
		Ligands
		Coordination Numbers and Geometries
		Naming Coordination Compounds
	22.4 Structure and Isomerization
		Structural Isomerism
		Stereoisomerism
	22.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds
		Valence Bond Theory
		Crystal Field Theory
		Octahedral Complexes and d Orbital Splitting
	22.6 Applications of Coordination Compounds
		Chelating Agents
		Chemical Analysis
		Coloring Agents
		Biomolecules
	REVIEW
		Self-Assessment
		Key Learning Outcomes
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations and Relationships
	EXERCISES
		Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
Appendix I: Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry
	A: Scientific Notation
	B: Logarithms
	C: Quadratic Equations
	D: Graphs
Appendix II: Useful Data
	A: Atomic Colors
	B: Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25
	C: Aqueous Equilibrium Constants
	D: Standard Electrode Potentials at 25
	E: Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
Appendix III: Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Problems
Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems
Glossary
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Credits
Index
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