Chemistry

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
For Instructors
1 Chemical Tools: Experimentation and Measurement
	1.1 The Scientific Method: Nanoparticle Catalysts for Fuel Cells
	1.2 Measurements: SI Units and Scientific Notation
	1.3 Mass and Its Measurement
	1.4 Length and Its Measurement
	1.5 Temperature and Its Measurement
	1.6 Derived Units: Volume and Its Measurement
	1.7 Derived Units: Density and Its Measurement
	1.8 Derived Units: Energy and Its Measurement
	1.9 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures in Measurement
	1.10 Significant Figures in Calculations
	1.11 Converting from One Unit to Another
	INQUIRY What are the unique properties of nanoscale materials?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
	2.1 Chemistry and the Elements
	2.2 Elements and the Periodic Table
	2.3 Some Common Groups of Elements and Their Properties
	2.4 Observations Supporting Atomic Theory: The Conservation of Mass and the Law of Definite Proportions
	2.5 The Law of Multiple Proportions and Dalton’s Atomic Theory
	2.6 Atomic Structure: Electrons
	2.7 Atomic Structure: Protons and Neutrons
	2.8 Atomic Numbers
	2.9 Atomic Weights and the Mole
	2.10 Measuring Atomic Weight: Mass Spectrometry
	2.11 Mixtures and Chemical Compounds; Molecules and Covalent Bonds
	2.12 Ions and Ionic Bonds
	2.13 Naming Chemical Compounds
	INQUIRY How can measurements of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in ice cores determine past climates?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
3 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions
	3.1 Representing Chemistry on Different Levels
	3.2 Balancing Chemical Equations
	3.3 Molecular Weight and Molar Mass
	3.4 Stoichiometry: Relating Amounts of Reactants and Products
	3.5 Yields of Chemical Reactions
	3.6 Reactions with Limiting Amounts of Reactants
	3.7 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas
	3.8 Determining Empirical Formulas: Elemental Analysis
	3.9 Determining Molecular Weights: Mass Spectrometry
	INQUIRY How is the principle of atom economy used to minimize waste in a chemical synthesis?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
4 Reactions in Aqueous Solution
	4.1 Solution Concentration: Molarity
	4.2 Diluting Concentrated Solutions
	4.3 Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution
	4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solution
	4.5 Aqueous Reactions and Net Ionic Equations
	4.6 Precipitation Reactions and Solubility Guidelines
	4.7 Acids, Bases, and Neutralization Reactions
	4.8 Solution Stoichiometry
	4.9 Measuring the Concentration of a Solution: Titration
	4.10 Oxidation–Reduction (Redox) Reactions
	4.11 Identifying Redox Reactions
	4.12 The Activity Series of the Elements
	4.13 Redox Titrations
	4.14 Some Applications of Redox Reactions
	INQUIRY How do sports drinks replenish the substances lost in sweat?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
5 Periodicity and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
	5.1 Wave Properties of Radiant Energy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
	5.2 Particlelike Properties of Radiant Energy: The Photoelectric Effect and Planck’s Postulate
	5.3 Atomic Line Spectra and Quantized Energy
	5.4 Wavelike Properties of Matter: de Broglie’s Hypothesis
	5.5 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
	5.6 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom: Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
	5.7 The Shapes of Orbitals
	5.8 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
	5.9 Orbital Energy Levels in Multielectron Atoms
	5.10 Electron Configurations of Multielectron Atoms
	5.11 Anomalous Electron Configurations
	5.12 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
	5.13 Electron Configurations and Periodic Properties: Atomic Radii
	INQUIRY How does knowledge of atomic emission spectra help us build more efficient light bulbs?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
6 Ionic Compounds: Periodic Trends and Bonding Theory
	6.1 Electron Configurations of Ions
	6.2 Ionic Radii
	6.3 Ionization Energy
	6.4 Higher Ionization Energies
	6.5 Electron Affinity
	6.6 The Octet Rule
	6.7 Ionic Bonds and the Formation of Ionic Solids
	6.8 Lattice Energies in Ionic Solids
	INQUIRY How do ionic liquids lead to more environmentally friendly processes?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
7 Covalent Bonding and Electron-Dot Structures
	7.1 Covalent Bonding in Molecules
	7.2 Strengths of Covalent Bonds
	7.3 Polar Covalent Bonds: Electronegativity
	7.4 A Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
	7.5 Electron‐Dot Structures: The Octet Rule
	7.6 Procedure for Drawing Electron‐Dot Structures
	7.7 Drawing Electron‐Dot Structures for Radicals
	7.8 Electron‐Dot Structures of Compounds Containing Only Hydrogen and Second‐Row Elements
	7.9 Electron‐Dot Structures and Resonance
	7.10 Formal Charges
	INQUIRY How does bond polarity affect the toxicity of organophosphate insecticides?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
8 Covalent Compounds: Bonding Theories and Molecular Structure
	8.1 Molecular Shapes: The VSEPR Model
	8.2 Valence Bond Theory
	8.3 Hybridization and Hybrid Orbitals
	8.4 Other Kinds of Hybrid Orbitals
	8.5 Polar Covalent Bonds and Dipole Moments
	8.6 Intermolecular Forces
	8.7 Molecular Orbital Theory: The Hydrogen Molecule
	8.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Other Diatomic Molecules
	8.9 Combining Valence Bond Theory and Molecular Orbital Theory
	INQUIRY Which is better for human health, natural or ‐synthetic vitamins?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
9 Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy
	9.1 Energy and Its Conservation
	9.2 Internal Energy and State Functions
	9.3 Expansion Work
	9.4 Energy and Enthalpy
	9.5 Thermochemical Equations and the Thermodynamic Standard State
	9.6 Enthalpies of Chemical and Physical Changes
	9.7 Calorimetry and Heat Capacity
	9.8 Hess’s Law
	9.9 Standard Heats of Formation
	9.10 Bond Dissociation Energies
	9.11 An Introduction to Entropy
	9.12 An Introduction to Free Energy
	INQUIRY How do we determine the energy content of biofuels?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
10 Gases: Their Properties and Behavior
	10.1 Gases and Gas Pressure
	10.2 The Gas Laws
	10.3 The Ideal Gas Law
	10.4 Stoichiometric Relationships with Gases
	10.5 Mixtures of Gases: Partial Pressure and Dalton’s Law
	10.6 The Kinetic–Molecular Theory of Gases
	10.7 Gas Diffusion and Effusion: Graham’s Law
	10.8 The Behavior of Real Gases
	10.9 The Earth’s Atmosphere and the Greenhouse Effect
	10.10 Greenhouse Gases
	10.11 Climate Change
	INQUIRY How do inhaled anesthetics work?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
11 Liquids and Phase Changes
	11.1 Properties of Liquids
	11.2 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
	11.3 Phase Changes between Solids, Liquids, and Gases
	11.4 Energy Changes during Phase Transitions
	11.5 Phase Diagrams
	11.6 Liquid Crystals
	INQUIRY How is caffeine removed from coffee?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
12 Solids and Solid-State Materials
	12.1 Types of Solids
	12.2 Probing the Structure of Solids: X‐Ray Crystallography
	12.3 The Packing of Spheres in Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells
	12.4 Structures of Some Ionic Solids
	12.5 Structures of Some Covalent Network Solids
	12.6 Bonding in Metals
	12.7 Semiconductors
	12.8 Semiconductor Applications
	12.9 Superconductors
	12.10 Ceramics and Composites
	INQUIRY What are quantum dots, and what controls their color?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
13 Solutions and Their Properties
	13.1 Solutions
	13.2 Enthalpy Changes and the Solution Process
	13.3 Predicting Solubility
	13.4 Concentration Units for Solutions
	13.5 Some Factors That Affect Solubility
	13.6 Physical Behavior of Solutions: Colligative Properties
	13.7 Vapor‐Pressure Lowering of Solutions: Raoult’s Law
	13.8 Boiling‐Point Elevation and Freezing‐Point Depression of Solutions
	13.9 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
	INQUIRY How does hemodialysis cleanse the blood of patients with kidney failure?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
14 Chemical Kinetics
	14.1 Reaction Rates
	14.2 Rate Laws and Reaction Order
	14.3 Method of Initial Rates: Experimental Determination of a Rate Law
	14.4 Integrated Rate Law: Zeroth‐Order Reactions
	14.5 Integrated Rate Law: First‐Order Reactions
	14.6 Integrated Rate Law: Second‐Order Reactions
	14.7 Reaction Rates and Temperature: The Arrhenius Equation
	14.8 Using the Arrhenius Equation
	14.9 Reaction Mechanisms
	14.10 Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions
	14.11 Rate Laws for Overall Reactions
	14.12 Catalysis
	14.13 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts
	INQUIRY How do enzymes work?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
15 Chemical Equilibrium
	15.1 The Equilibrium State
	15.2 The Equilibrium Constant
	15.3 The Equilibrium Constant
	15.4 Heterogeneous Equilibria
	15.5 Using the Equilibrium Constant
	15.6 Factors That Alter the Composition of an Equilibrium Mixture: Le ChÂtelier’s Principle
	15.7 Altering an Equilibrium Mixture: Changes in Concentration
	15.8 Altering an Equilibrium Mixture: Changes in Pressure and Volume
	15.9 Altering an Equilibrium Mixture: Changes in Temperature
	15.10 The Link between Chemical Equilibrium and Chemical Kinetics
	INQUIRY How does high altitude affect oxygen transport in the body?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
16 Aqueous Equilibria: Acids and Bases
	16.1 Acid–Base Concepts: The BrØnsted–Lowry Theory
	16.2 Acid Strength and Base Strength
	16.3 Factors That Affect Acid Strength
	16.4 Dissociation of Water
	16.5 The pH Scale
	16.6 Measuring pH
	16.7 The pH in Solutions of Strong Acids and Strong Bases
	16.8 Equilibria in Solutions of Weak Acids
	16.9 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations in Solutions of Weak Acids
	16.10 Percent Dissociation in Solutions of Weak Acids
	16.11 Polyprotic Acids
	16.12 Equilibria in Solutions of Weak Bases
	16.13 Relation Between and
	16.14 Acid–Base Properties of Salts
	16.15 Lewis Acids and Bases
	INQUIRY Has the problem of acid rain been solved?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
17 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria
	17.1 Neutralization Reactions
	17.2 The Common‐Ion Effect
	17.3 Buffer Solutions
	17.4 The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation
	17.5 pH Titration Curves
	17.6 Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations
	17.7 Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations
	17.8 Weak Base–Strong Acid Titrations
	17.9 Polyprotic Acid–Strong Base Titrations
	17.10 Solubility Equilibria for Ionic Compounds
	17.11 Measuring and Calculating Solubility from
	17.12 Factors That Affect Solubility
	17.13 Precipitation of Ionic Compounds
	17.14 Separation of Ions by Selective Precipitation
	17.15 Qualitative Analysis
	INQUIRY What is causing ocean acidification?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
18 Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and Spontaneity
	18.1 Spontaneous Processes
	18.2 Enthalpy, Entropy, and Spontaneous Processes
	18.3 Entropy and Probability
	18.4 Entropy and Temperature
	18.5 Standard Molar Entropies and Standard Entropies of Reaction
	18.6 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
	18.7 Free Energy and the Spontaneity of Chemical Reactions
	18.8 Standard Free‐Energy Changes for Reactions
	18.9 Standard Free Energies of Formation
	18.10 Free‐Energy Changes for Reactions under Nonstandard‐State Conditions
	18.11 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium
	INQUIRY Does the formation of highly ordered molecules violate the second law of thermodynamics?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
19 Electrochemistry
	19.1 Balancing Redox Reactions by the ‐Half‐Reaction Method
	19.2 Galvanic Cells
	19.3 Shorthand Notation for Galvanic Cells
	19.4 Cell Potentials and Free‐Energy Changes for Cell Reactions
	19.5 Standard Reduction Potentials
	19.6 Using Standard Reduction Potentials
	19.7 Cell Potentials under Nonstandard‐State Conditions: The Nernst Equation
	19.8 Electrochemical Determination of pH
	19.9 Standard Cell Potentials and Equilibrium Constants
	19.10 Batteries
	19.11 Corrosion
	19.12 Electrolysis and Electrolytic Cells
	19.13 Commercial Applications of Electrolysis
	19.14 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
	INQUIRY How do hydrogen fuel cells work?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
20 Nuclear Chemistry
	20.1 Nuclear Reactions and Their Characteristics
	20.2 Radioactivity
	20.3 Nuclear Stability
	20.4 Radioactive Decay Rates
	20.5 Dating with Radioisotopes
	20.6 Energy Changes during Nuclear Reactions
	20.7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
	20.8 Nuclear Transmutation
	20.9 Detecting and Measuring Radioactivity
	INQUIRY How are radioisotopes used in medicine?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equations
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
21 Transition Elements and Coordination Chemistry
	21.1 Electron Configurations
	21.2 Properties of Transition Elements
	21.3 Oxidation States of Transition Elements
	21.4 Coordination Compounds
	21.5 Ligands
	21.6 Naming Coordination Compounds
	21.7 Isomers
	21.8 Enantiomers and Molecular Handedness
	21.9 Color of Transition Metal Complexes
	21.10 Crystal Field Theory
	21.11 Bonding in Complexes: Valence Bond Theory
	INQUIRY How does cisplatin kill cancer cells?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Key Equation
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
22 The Main-Group Elements
	22.1 A Review of General Properties and Periodic Trends
	22.2 Distinctive Properties of the Second‐Row Elements
	22.3 Group 1A: Hydrogen
	22.4 Group 1A: Alkali Metals and Group 2A: Alkaline Earth Metals
	22.5 Group 3A Elements
	22.6 Group 4A Elements
	22.7 Group 5A Elements
	22.8 Group 6A Elements
	22.9 Group 7A: The Halogens
	22.10 Group 8A: Noble Gases
	INQUIRY What are the barriers to a hydrogen economy?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
23 Organic and Biological Chemistry
	23.1 Organic Molecules and Their Structures: Consitutional Isomers
	23.2 Stereoisomers: Chiral Molecules
	23.3 Families of Organic Compounds: Functional Groups
	23.4 Carbohydrates: A Biological Example of Isomers
	23.5 Valence Bond Theory and Orbital Overlap Pictures
	23.6 Lipids: A Biological Example of Cis–Trans Isomerism
	23.7 Formal Charge and Resonance in Organic Compounds
	23.8 Conjugated Systems
	23.9 Proteins: A Biological Example of Conjugation
	23.10 Aromatic Compounds and Molecular Orbital Theory
	23.11 Nucleic Acids: A Biological Example of Aromaticity
	INQUIRY Why do enantiomers have different biological responses?
	Study Guide
	Key Terms
	Practice Test
	Conceptual Problems
	Section Problems
	Multiconcept Problems
Appendix A: Mathematical Operations
	A.1 Scientific Notation
	A.2 Logarithms
	A.3 Straight‐Line Graphs and Linear Equations
	A.4 Quadratic Equations
	A.5 Calculus Derivations of Integrated Rate Laws
Appendix B: Thermodynamic Properties at 25 °C
Appendix C: Equilibrium Constants at 25 °C
Appendix D: Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C
Appendix E: Properties of Water
Answers to Selected Problems
Glossary
Index
Photo/Text Credits