Chemistry

Chemistry
Brief contents
Contents
About the authors
1 The atom
	1.1 The essential concepts in brief
	1.2 The atomic theory
	1.3 The structure of the atom
		Atomic mass
	1.4 The periodic table of the elements
		The modern periodic table
		Naming the elements
	1.5 Electrons in atoms
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2 The language of chemistry
	2.1 Measurement
		SI units
		Non-SI units
		Dimensional analysis
		Precision and accuracy
		Uncertainties and significant figures
	2.2 Representations of molecules and reactions
		Chemical formulae
		Structural formulae
		Three-dimensional structures
		Mechanistic arrows in chemical reactions
	2.3 Nomenclature
		Naming inorganic compounds
		Naming organic compounds
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	MATHS FOR CHEMISTRY
		The equation to be rearranged involves addition or subtraction
		The equation to be rearranged involves multiplication or division
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
3 Chemical reactions and stoichiometry
	3.1 Chemical equations
		Specifying states of matter
	3.2 Balancing chemical equations
	3.3 The mole
	3.4 Empirical formulae
		Mole ratios from chemical formulae
		Determination of chemical formulae
		Determination of empirical formulae
	3.5 Stoichiometry, limiting reagents and percentage yield
		Mole ratios in chemical reactions
		Limiting reagents
		Percentage yield
	3.6 Solution stoichiometry
		The concentration of solutions
		Applications of solution stoichiometry
		Stoichiometry of solutions containing ions
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4 Atomic energy levels
	4.1 Characteristics of atoms
	4.2 Characteristics of light
		Wave-like properties of light
		Particle properties of light
		Absorption and emission spectra
		Atomic spectra
		Quantisation of energy
		Energy level diagrams
	4.3 Properties of electrons
		The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
	4.4 Quantisation and quantum numbers
		Principal quantum number (n)
		Azimuthal quantum number (l)
		Magnetic quantum number (ml)
		Spin quantum number (ms)
		The Pauli exclusion principle
	4.5 Atomic orbital electron distributions and energies
		Orbital electron distributions
		Orbital energies
	4.6 Structure of the periodic table
		The Aufbau principle and order of orbital filling
		Valence electrons
	4.7 Electron configurations
		Electron–electron repulsion
		Orbitals with nearly equal energies
		Configurations of ions
		Magnetic properties of atoms
		Excited states
	4.8 Periodicity of atomic properties
		Atomic radii
		Ionisation energy
		Electron affinity
		Sizes of ions
	4.9 Ions and chemical periodicity
		Cation stability
		Anion stability
		Metals, nonmetals and metalloids
		s-block elements
		p-block elements
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
5 Chemical bonding and molecular structure
	5.1 Fundamentals of bonding
		The hydrogen molecule
		Bond length and bond energy
		Other diatomic molecules: F2
		Unequal electron sharing
	5.2 Ionic bonding
	5.3 Lewis structures
		The conventions
		Building Lewis structures
		Resonance structures
	5.4 Valence-shell-electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
		Two sets of electron pairs: linear geometry
		Three sets of electron pairs: trigonal planar geometry
		Four sets of electron pairs: tetrahedral geometry
		Five sets of electron pairs: trigonal bipyramidal geometry
		Six sets of electron pairs: octahedral geometry
	5.5 Properties of covalent bonds
		Dipole moments
		Bond length
		Bond energy
		Summary of molecular shapes
	5.6 Valence bond theory
		Orbital overlap
		Conventions of the orbital overlap model
		Hybridisation of atomic orbitals
		Multiple bonds
	5.7 Molecular orbital theory: diatomic molecules
		Molecular orbitals of H2 and He2
		Molecular orbitals of O2
		Homonuclear diatomic molecules
		Heteronuclear diatomic molecules
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
6 Gases
	6.1 The states of matter
	6.2 Describing gases
		Pressure (p)
		The gas laws
		The ideal gas equation
	6.3 Molecular view of gases
		Molecular speeds
		Speed and energy
		Average kinetic energy and temperature
		Rates of gas movement
		Ideal gases
	6.4 Gas mixtures
		Daltons law of partial pressures
		Describing gas mixtures
	6.5 Applications of the ideal gas equation
		Determination of molar mass
		Determination of gas density
	6.6 Gas stoichiometry
		Summary of mole conversions
	6.7 Real gases
		The halogens
		Properties of real gases
		The van der Waals equation
		Melting and boiling points
	6.8 Intermolecular forces
		Dispersion forces
		Dipolar forces
		Hydrogen bonds
		Binary hydrogen compounds
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7 Condensed phases: liquids and solids
	7.1 Liquids
		Properties of liquids
		Vapour pressure
	7.2 Solids
		Magnitudes of forces
		Molecular solids
		Network solids
		Metallic solids
		Ionic solids
	7.3 Phase changes
		Supercritical fluids
		Phase diagrams
	7.4 Order in solids
		Close-packed structures
		The crystal lattice and the unit cell
		Cubic structures
		Ionic solids
	7.5 X-ray diffraction
	7.6 Amorphous solids
	7.7 Crystal imperfections
	7.8 Modern ceramics
		Properties of ceramics
		Applications of advanced ceramics
		High-temperature superconductors
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
8 Chemical thermodynamics
	8.1 Introduction to chemical thermodynamics
	8.2 Thermodynamic concepts
		Heat and temperature
		System, surroundings and universe
		Units
		State functions
		DG and spontaneity
	8.3 The first law of thermodynamics
		Heat capacity and specific heat
		Determination of heat
	8.4 Enthalpy
		Standard enthalpy of reaction
		Hesss law
		Standard enthalpy of formation
		Standard enthalpy of combustion
		Bond enthalpies
	8.5 Entropy
		Entropy and probability
		Entropy and entropy change
		Factors that affect entropy
	8.6 The second law of thermodynamics
	8.7 The third law of thermodynamics
	8.8 Gibbs energy and reaction spontaneity
		The sign of DG
		Standard Gibbs energy change
		Gibbs energy and work
		Gibbs energy and equilibrium
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
9 Chemical equilibrium
	9.1 Chemical equilibrium
	9.2 The equilibrium constant, K, and the reaction quotient, Q
		Manipulating equilibrium constant expressions
		The magnitude of the equilibrium constant
		Equilibrium constant expressions for heterogeneous systems
	9.3 Equilibrium and Gibbs energy
		Gibbs energy diagrams
		The relationship between ?rGө and K
	9.4 How systems at equilibrium respond to change
		Le Châtelier's principle
		Adding or removing a product or reactant
		Changing the pressure in gaseous reactions
		Changing the temperature of a reaction mixture
		Addition of a catalyst
	9.5 Equilibrium calculations
		Calculating Kc from equilibrium concentrations: the concentration table
		Calculating equilibrium concentrations from initial concentrations
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	MATHS FOR CHEMISTRY
		The natural logarithm: ln or loge
		Simplifying complicated fractions
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
10 Solutions and solubility
	10.1 Introduction to solutions and solubility
	10.2 Gaseous solutions
	10.3 Liquid solutions
		Gas–liquid solutions
		Liquid–liquid solutions
		Liquid–solid solutions
	10.4 Quantification of solubility: the solubility product
		The relationship between Ksp and solubility
		The common ion effect
		Will a precipitate form?
	10.5 Colligative properties of solutions
		Molarity
		Molality
		Mole fraction
		Raoult's law
		Solutions containing more than one volatile component
		Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression
		Osmosis and osmotic pressure
		Measurement of solute dissociation
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
11 Acids and bases
	11.1 The Brønsted–Lowry definition of acids and bases
		Conjugate acid–base pairs
	11.2 Acid–base reactions in water
		The autoprotolysis of water
		The concept of pH
		The strength of acids and bases
	11.3 Strong acids and bases
		pH calculations in solutions of strong acids and bases
		Suppression of the autoprotolysis of water
	11.4 Weak acids and bases
		pH calculations in solutions of weak acids and bases
		pH calculations in solutions of salts of weak acids and bases
		Solutions that contain the salt of a weak acid and a weak base
		Situations where simplifying assumptions do not work
	11.5 The molecular basis of acid strength
		Binary acids
		Oxoacids
	11.6 Buffer solutions
		pH calculations in buffer solutions
	11.7 Acid–base titrations
		Strong acid – strong base and strong base – strong acid titrations
		Weak acid – strong base and weak base – strong acid titrations
		Diprotic acids
		Speciation diagrams
		Acid–base indicators
	11.8 Lewis acids and bases
		Recognising Lewis acids and bases
		Polarisability
		The hard–soft concept
		The hard–soft acid–base principle
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
12 Oxidation and reduction
	12.1 Oxidation and reduction
		Oxidation numbers
	12.2 Balancing net ionic equations for redox reactions
		Redox reactions in acidic and basic solutions
	12.3 Galvanic cells
		Example 1: metallic zinc in copper sulfate solution
		Example 2: copper in zinc sulfate solution
		Example 3: copper coil in a solution of silver ions
		Setting up a galvanic cell
		Processes in galvanic cells
	12.4 Reduction potentials
		Cell and standard cell potentials
		Reduction and standard reduction potentials
		Determining standard reduction potentials
		Spontaneous and nonspontaneous reactions
		Oxidising and nonoxidising acids
	12.5 Relationship between cell potential, concentration and Gibbs energy
		The Gibbs energy change, ?G
		Equilibrium constant, K
		The Nernst equation
		Concentration cells
	12.6 Corrosion
	12.7 Electrolysis
		What is electrolysis?
		Comparison of electrolytic and galvanic cells
		Electrolysis in aqueous solutions
		Stoichiometry of electrochemical reactions
	12.8 Batteries
		The lead storage battery
		Dry cell batteries
		Modern high-performance batteries
		Fuel cells
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
13 Transition metal chemistry
	13.1 Metals in the periodic table
	13.2 Transition metals
	13.3 Ligands
	13.4 Transition metal complexes
		Structures of transition metal complexes
		Isomerism in transition metal complexes
		The nomenclature of transition metal complexes
		The chelate effect
		Inert and labile transition metal complexes
		Electrochemical aspects of transition metal complexes
		Bonding in transition metal complexes
		The colours of transition metal complexes
		The magnetic properties of transition metal complexes
	13.5 Transition metal ions in biological systems
		Transport and storage metalloproteins
		Metalloenzymes
		Electron transfer proteins
	13.6 Isolation and purification of transition metals
		Separation
		Conversion
		Reduction
		Refining
		Iron and steel
		Titanium
		Copper
	13.7 Applications of transition metals
		Titanium
		Chromium
		Copper, silver and gold
		Zinc and mercury
		The platinum metals
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
14 The p-block elements
	14.1 The p-block elements
		Group 13
		Group 14
		Group 15
		Group 16
		Group 17
		Group 18
	14.2 Reactivity of the p-block elements
		Bonding in the p-block elements
		Group 13 compounds
		Group 14 compounds
		Group 15 compounds
		Group 16 compounds
		Group 17 compounds
	14.3 The biogeochemical cycles of nature
		The group 16 cycles
		The group 15 cycles
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
15 Reaction kinetics
	15.1 Reaction rates
	15.2 Factors that affect reaction rates
		Chemical nature of the reactants
		Physical nature of the reactants
		Concentrations of the reactants
		Temperature of the system
		Presence of catalysts
	15.3 Overview of rate laws
	15.4 Types of rate laws: differential and integrated
		The differential rate law
		The integrated rate law
	15.5 Theory of chemical kinetics
		Collision theory
	15.6 Reaction mechanisms
		The rate-determining step
		The steady-state approximation
	15.7 Catalysts
		Homogeneous catalysts
		Heterogeneous catalysts
		Enzyme kinetics
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	MATHS FOR CHEMISTRY
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
16 The chemistry of carbon
	16.1 Introduction to hydrocarbons
	16.2 Alkanes
		Conformation of alkanes
		Cycloalkanes
		Naming alkanes and cycloalkanes
		Conformations of cycloalkanes
		Physical properties of alkanes
	16.3 Alkenes and alkynes
		Shapes of alkenes and alkynes
		Nomenclature of alkenes and alkynes
		Physical properties of alkenes and alkynes
	16.4 Reactions of alkanes
	16.5 Reactions of alkenes
		Electrophilic addition reactions
	16.6 Reactions of alkynes
	16.7 Aromatic compounds
		The structure of benzene
		The concept of aromaticity
		Nomenclature
	16.8 Reactions of aromatic compounds: electrophilic aromatic substitution
		Halogenation
		Nitration and sulfonation
		Alkylation
		Acylation
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
17 Chirality
	17.1 Stereoisomers
	17.2 Enantiomerism
		Stereocentres
		Representing enantiomers of complicated organic molecules
	17.3 Naming stereocentres: the R,S system
	17.4 Molecules with more than one stereocentre
		Acyclic molecules with two stereocentres
		Cyclic molecules with two stereocentres
		Molecules with three or more stereocentres
	17.5 Optical activity: detecting chirality in the laboratory
		Plane-polarised light
		Polarimeters
		Measuring the rotation of plane-polarised light
		Racemic mixtures
	17.6 Chirality in the biological world
		How an enzyme distinguishes between enantiomers
	17.7 Synthesising chiral drugs
		Resolution
		Asymmetric synthesis
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
18 Haloalkanes
	18.1 Haloalkanes
		Nomenclature
		Synthesis of haloalkanes
		Chlorination and bromination
		Principal reactions of haloalkanes
	18.2 Nucleophilic substitution
		Mechanisms of nucleophilic substitution
		Experimental evidence for SN1 and SN2 mechanisms
	18.3 ?-elimination
		Mechanisms of ?-elimination
	18.4 Substitution versus elimination
		SN1 versus E1 reactions
		SN2 versus E2 reactions
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
19 Alcohols, amines and related compounds
	19.1 Alcohols
		Physical properties
		Preparation of alcohols
	19.2 Reactions of alcohols
		Acidity of alcohols
		Basicity of alcohols
		Reaction with active metals
		Conversion to haloalkanes
		Acid-catalysed dehydration to alkenes
		Oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols
		Ester formation
	19.3 Phenols
		Acidity of phenols
		Acid–base reactions of phenols
		Oxidation of phenols
		Ester and ether formation
	19.4 Ethers
		Physical properties
		Reactions of ethers
	19.5 Thiols
		Physical properties
		Reactions of thiols
	19.6 Amines
		Physical properties
		Preparation of amines
	19.7 Reactions of amines
		Basicity of amines
		Reaction with acids
		Reaction of primary aromatic amines with nitrous acid
		Amide formation
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
20 Spectroscopy
	20.1 Tools for determining structure
		The index of hydrogen deficiency
	20.2 Mass spectrometry
		Isotopes in mass spectrometry
	20.3 Infrared spectroscopy
		Electromagnetic radiation
		The vibrational infrared spectrum
		Molecular vibrations
		Correlation tables
	20.4 Interpreting infrared spectra
		General rules for interpretation of IR spectra
		Alkanes
		Alkenes
		Alkynes
		Alcohols
		Ethers
		Benzene and its derivatives
		Amines
		Aldehydes and ketones
		Carboxylic acids and their derivatives
	20.5 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
		The origin of nuclear magnetic resonance
		Shielding
		An NMR spectrometer
		Equivalent hydrogen atoms
		Signal areas
		Chemical shift
		Signal splitting and the (n + 1) rule
		13C-NMR spectroscopy
	20.6 Interpreting NMR spectra
		Alkanes
		Alkenes
		Alcohols
		Benzene and its derivatives
		Amines
		Aldehydes and ketones
		Carboxylic acids
		Esters
		Solving NMR problems
	20.7 Other tools for determining structure
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
21 Aldehydes and ketones
	21.1 Structure and bonding
	21.2 Nomenclature
		IUPAC names for compounds with more than one functional group
	21.3 Physical properties
	21.4 Preparation of aldehydes and ketones
		Industrially important aldehydes and ketones
		Friedel–Crafts acylation
		Oxidation of alcohols
		Ozonolysis of alkenes
		Hydration of alkynes
	21.5 Reactions
		Addition of Grignard reagents
		Addition of other carbon nucleophiles
		Addition of alcohols
		Addition of ammonia, amines and related compounds
		Reduction
		Oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids
		Oxidation of ketones to carboxylic acids
	21.6 Keto–enol tautomerism
		Racemisation at an ?-carbon atom
		?-halogenation
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
22 Carbohydrates
	22.1 Introduction to carbohydrates
	22.2 Monosaccharides
		Stereoisomerism
		Fischer projections
		D- and L-monosaccharides
		Amino sugars
		Physical properties
	22.3 The cyclic structure of monosaccharides
		Haworth projections
		Conformation representations
		Mutarotation
	22.4 Reactions of monosaccharides
		Formation of glycosides (acetals)
		Reduction to alditols
		Oxidation to aldonic acids (reducing sugars)
		Oxidation to uronic acids
		L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
	22.5 Disaccharides and oligosaccharides
		Sucrose
		Lactose
		Maltose
	22.6 Polysaccharides
		Starch: amylose and amylopectin
		Glycogen
		Cellulose
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
23 Carboxylic acids and their derivatives
	23.1 Structure and bonding
		Carboxylic acids
		Acid halides
		Acid anhydrides
		Esters of carboxylic acids
		Amides of carboxylic acids
	23.2 Nomenclature
		Carboxylic acids
		Acid halides
		Acid anhydrides
		Esters and lactones
		Amides and lactams
	23.3 Physical properties
	23.4 Preparation of carboxylic acids
		Oxidation of primary alcohols and aldehydes
		Oxidation of alkylbenzenes
		Carbonation of Grignard reagents
		Formation and hydrolysis of nitriles
		Hydrolysis of carboxylic acid derivatives
	23.5 Reactions of carboxylic acids and derivatives
		Acidity
		Reaction with bases
		Nucleophilic acyl substitution
		Acid halide formation
		Reactions with alcohols
		Reaction with water: hydrolysis
		Reactions with ammonia and amines
		Reduction
		Esters with Grignard reagents
		Interconversion of functional derivatives
	23.6 Triglycerides
		Fatty acids
		Physical properties
		Reduction of fatty-acid chains
		Rancidification of fats and oils
		Soaps and detergents
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
24 Amino acids, peptides and proteins
	24.1 Amino acids
		Chirality
		Protein-derived amino acids
		Some other common amino acids
	24.2 Acid–base properties of amino acids
		Acidic and basic groups of amino acids
		Titration of amino acids
		Amino acid charge at physiological pH
		Isoelectric point
		Electrophoresis
	24.3 Peptides, polypeptides and proteins
	24.4 Primary structure of polypeptides and proteins
		Amino acid analysis
		Sequence analysis
	24.5 Three-dimensional shapes of polypeptides and proteins
		Geometry of a peptide bond
		Secondary structure
		Tertiary structure
		Quaternary structure
	24.6 Denaturing proteins
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
25 The chemistry of DNA
	25.1 Nucleosides and nucleotides
	25.2 The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
		Primary structure: the covalent backbone
		Secondary structure: the double helix
		Tertiary structure: supercoiled DNA
		DNA replication
	25.3 Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
		Ribosomal RNA
		Transfer RNA
		Messenger RNA
	25.4 The genetic code
		Triplet nature of the code
		Deciphering the genetic code
		Properties of the genetic code
		Polypeptide synthesis
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
26 Polymers
	26.1 The architecture of polymers
	26.2 Polymer notation and nomenclature
	26.3 Formation of polymers
		Condensation or step-growth polymers
		Addition or chain-growth polymers
	26.4 Silicon polymers
	26.5 Recycling plastics
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
27 Nuclear chemistry
	27.1 Nuclear stability
	27.2 Unstable nuclei
		Alpha decay
		Beta decay
		Gamma decay
		Positron emission
		Neutron emission
		Electron capture
		Rates of radioactive decay
	27.3 Synthesis of new elements
	27.4 Radioactive dating methods
		14C dating
	27.5 Applications of nuclear processes
		Nuclear fission
		Nuclear fusion
		Nuclear medicine
	SUMMARY
	KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
	KEY TERMS
	REVIEW QUESTIONS
	REVIEW PROBLEMS
	ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Appendices
	Appendix A Thermodynamic data for selected elements, compounds and ions (25°C)
	Appendix B Average bond enthalpies (25°C)
	Appendix C Solubility products (25°C)
	Appendix D Cumulative formation constants of complexes (25°C)
	Appendix E Acidity and basicity constants for weak acids and bases (25°C)
	Appendix F Standard reduction potentials (25°C)
	Appendix G Ionisation energies and electron affinities of the first 36 elements at 25°C
	Appendix H Characteristic infrared absorption frequencies
	Appendix I Periodic table of the elements
	Appendix J Molar masses of the elements
	Appendix K Some important organic functional groups
	Appendix L A selection of interconversions possible for some of the simpler functional groups
	Appendix M Glossary of equations
Index
EULA