Canal Irrigation Systems in India: Operation, Maintenance, and Management (Water Science and Technology Library, 126)

Contents
About the Authors
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 An Integrated View of Irrigation and Agriculture
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Irrigation as a Project
	1.3 Irrigated Agriculture as a Planned System
	1.4 Irrigated Agriculture as a Set of Linked Subsystems
	1.5 Water Control System and Its Subsystems
		1.5.1 Water Delivery Sub-System
		1.5.2 Water Application Sub-System
		1.5.3 Water Use Sub-System
		1.5.4 Water Removal Subsystem
	1.6 Agronomic Subsystem (Irrigated Cropping Subsystem)
		1.6.1 Classifying Irrigated Cropping Sub-Systems
		1.6.2 Plant Environment
		1.6.3 Management Practices of Farmers
	1.7 Socio-Economic System
		1.7.1 Objectives of Socio-Economic Study
		1.7.2 Economic Subsystem
		1.7.3 Social Organizational Subsystem
	1.8 Irrigation: Component of Integrated Water Resources Management
		1.8.1 Meaning of Integrated Water Resource Management
		1.8.2 Interlinkages and Components of IWRM
		1.8.3 IWRM Principles
		1.8.4 Challenge for IWRM in Developing Countries
		1.8.5 Risks in Hierarchical Integration
	Questions
	References
2 Irrigation Management in India: Problems and Issues
	2.1 General
	2.2 Water Resource and Agricultural Land Resource
		2.2.1 Water Resources
	2.3 Irrigation Policy and Potential
		2.3.1 Irrigation Policy
		2.3.2 Irrigation Potential
	2.4 Command Area Development
	2.5 Problems Related to Canal Design, Operation and Maintenance
		2.5.1 Channel Capacity
		2.5.2 Inadequacy of Regulators and Escapes
		2.5.3 Unregulated Fixed Ventage Outlets
		2.5.4 Issue of Canal Lining
		2.5.5 Operation
		2.5.6 Maintenance
		2.5.7 Night Irrigation
	2.6 Water Distribution Below Outlets
		2.6.1 Rotational System
		2.6.2 Equity and Timeliness of Supplies
		2.6.3 Need to Improve Field Application Efficiency
	2.7 Tubewell Irrigation
		2.7.1 Performance of State Tubewells
		2.7.2 Electricity Subsidy
	2.8 Underpricing of Water
		2.8.1 Wide Variations in Water Rate Structures Across States
	2.9 Participatory Irrigation Management
	2.10 Land Degradation Due to Irrigation
	2.11 Training
	2.12 Rehabilitation and Modernization
		2.12.1 Meaning of Rehabilitation and Modernization
		2.12.2 Need for Rehabilitation
		2.12.3 Need and Scope of Modernization
	2.13 Features of Irrigation Administration
	Questions
	References
3 Irrigation in Indian Subcontinent: A Brief History and Some Lessons
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Background
		3.2.1 Original Evidence
		3.2.2 Agriculture: Profession and Diffusion
		3.2.3 Annual Rainfall and Its Geographic Variation: Then and Now
	3.3 Lift Irrigation
	3.4 Dams in North India
		3.4.1 Dam Construction Technology in Mauryan Period
		3.4.2 Dams in Sanchi, Vidisha Area (Central Part of India)
	3.5 Dams and Canals in South India and Sri Lanka
		3.5.1 Salient Features of Irrigation Works in South India and Sri Lanka
		3.5.2 Anicuts Across River Kaveri
		3.5.3 Chain Tanks
		3.5.4 Dams and Canals in Sri Lanka
	3.6 Long Life of Ancient Dams (Tanks)
	3.7 Irrigation Administration in Mauryan Period
	3.8 Salary of Irrigation Staff–Then and Now
	3.9 Ownership of Waterworks and Water Tax in the Mauryan Period
	3.10 Penalty for Violation of Rules
	3.11 Irrigation Works in Medieval Period (800–1840 A.D.)
	3.12 Irrigation Works in Indus Basin During British Period
	3.13 Irrigation Works in India During the British Period
		3.13.1 Some Important Irrigation Works
		3.13.2 Upper Ganga Canal During British Period
		3.13.3 Masonry Dams in the British Period
		3.13.4 World Heritage Irrigation Structures (WHIS) of the British Period
	3.14 Irrigation in the Post-independence Period
	Questions
	References
4 Irrigation Administration
	4.1 Features of Conventional Canal Administration
	4.2 Organization Structure
	4.3 Functions of Work-Charged Staff
		4.3.1 Functions of Work Charged Staff
		4.3.2 Norms for Deployment of Work-Charged Staff
	4.4 Technical Responsibilities of Engineering Staff at Field Level
	4.5 Financial Responsibilities of Engineering Staff
	4.6 Conditions and Incentives Affecting Irrigation Managers
		4.6.1 Convenience and Amenity
		4.6.2 Career
		4.6.3 Status
		4.6.4 Income, Stress, and Professional Satisfaction
		4.6.5 Political Control of Bureaucracy
		4.6.6 Effects of Corruption
	4.7 Possible Reforms in Irrigation Administration
		4.7.1 Separate O&M Cadres
		4.7.2 Rights and Information
		4.7.3 Enhanced Professionalism
		4.7.4 Other Measures
	4.8 Case Study on Evaluation of Irrigation Administration
		4.8.1 Staffing Pattern
		4.8.2 Evaluation of Staff Strength and Staff Performance
		4.8.3 Capabilities and Need for Capacity Building
		4.8.4 Coordination with Other Departments
	Questions
	References
5 Organisational Structure for Management of Irrigated Agriculture
	5.1 Transfer to Operation and Maintenance Stage
	5.2 CAD Program Revised as CADWM Program
	5.3 Coverage of Projects Under CAD and CADWM
	5.4 Examples of CAD Organisational Structures
		5.4.1 At Central Government Level
		5.4.2 At State Government Level
	5.5 Deficiencies in CAD Organization Structure
	5.6 Improvement in Organisation Structure for CAD
	Questions
	References
6 Farmers’ Participation
	6.1 Need for Farmers’ Participation in Irrigation Management
	6.2 Farmers Involvement at Different Levels
		6.2.1 Example 1: Andhra Pradesh
		6.2.2 Example 2: Odissa
		6.2.3 Example 3: Uttar Pradesh
	6.3 Role of Non-Governmental Organisations for Farmers
		6.3.1 Example: Shri Datta Water Management Society (Canal Irrigation)
	6.4 Turnover (Transfer) of Irrigation Facilities to Water Users Associations
		6.4.1 Operational Readiness
		6.4.2 Example of Transfer of Minor System Management in Odissa (India)
		6.4.3 Example: Turnover of Small Irrigation Schemes in Indonesia
	6.5 Issues Relating to Turnover (Transfer)
		6.5.1 Economic and Financial Issues
		6.5.2 Role of Voluntary Agencies
		6.5.3 Guidance After Turnover
		6.5.4 Transfer of Assets or Only Management
		6.5.5 Staff Adjustment After Turnover
		6.5.6 Turn Over Only After Rehabilitation
		6.5.7 Social Heterogeneity—A Big Hindrance
	6.6 Conflict Interfaces
	6.7 Enactment of Legal Acts
		6.7.1 Enactment/Amendment of Irrigation Act in India
		6.7.2 Progress of Formation of WUAs
		6.7.3 Example of a WUA: Irrigation Panchayats (Madhya Pradesh)
		6.7.4 Bundelkhand Jal Saheli Manch-An Informal Water Committee
	6.8 Tamil Nadu Farmers Management of Irrigation Systems Act, 2000
		6.8.1 Content of the Act
		6.8.2 Functions of the Water Users Association
		6.8.3 Distribution Committees
	6.9 Farmers Participation-A Field Survey-Based Study
	Questions
	References
7 Operation of Dams and Barrages
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Components of Dams, Reservoirs, and Barrages
		7.2.1 Components of Dams and Reservoirs
		7.2.2 Components of Barrages
	7.3 Reservoir Operation (Simulation) and Reliability
		7.3.1 Reservoir Operation Table
		7.3.2 Reliability of Water Supply from Reservoir
		7.3.3 Standards of Design Reliability (Po Design)
		7.3.4 Example of Reliability Parameters Computation
	7.4 Dam (Gates) Operation
		7.4.1 Normal Operations
		7.4.2 Emergency Operations
	7.5 Operation and Regulation of Barrage Gates
	7.6 Exclusion of Sediment Entry into Canal
		7.6.1 Requirement of Sediment Excluders
		7.6.2 Still Pond or Semi Still Pond Regulation
		7.6.3 Silt Excluders and Silt Ejectors Operation
	7.7 River Behaviour Observations
	7.8 Case Study of Bhoothathankettu Barrage (Kerala)
		7.8.1 The Bhoothathankettu Barrage
		7.8.2 Collection and Reporting of Barrage and Reservoir Data
		7.8.3 Elevation-Area-Capacity Relation
		7.8.4 Normal Operation Procedures
		7.8.5 Operating Instructions for Gates of Barrage
		7.8.6 Operating Instructions for Vertical Lift Gates (Barrage/Irrigation Sluice Gate)
	Questions
	References
8 Canal Operation
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Operation Methods and Classification
	8.3 Procedure for Selection of Operating Methods
	8.4 Operational and Regulation Modes
		8.4.1 Water Flow Control
		8.4.2 Water Level Control
		8.4.3 Canal Control Under Variable Flow Conditions
	8.5 Regulation of Gates for Weekly Irrigation Scheduling
		8.5.1 Example: Procedure for Weekly Irrigation Scheduling
		8.5.2 Operation Procedure for Minor Offtake and Turnout (Outlet) Gate
	8.6 Operational Testing and Exercising
	8.7 Posting of Operating Instructions
	8.8 Canal Automation
		8.8.1 Manual and Automated Operation of Gates
		8.8.2 Meaning of Automation
		8.8.3 Downstream Control
		8.8.4 Control Volume Concept of Operation in California Aqueduct System
		8.8.5 Dynamic Regulation
	8.9 Narayanpur Left Bank Canal Automation Project
		8.9.1 Automation of Existing HR and CR Gates
		8.9.2 Information Kiosk with Farmer Dashboard
		8.9.3 SCADA System Software for Controlling and Monitoring
		8.9.4 Master Control Station
		8.9.5 Remote Monitoring Station
		8.9.6 Overall System Architecture
	Questions
	References
9 Water Distribution Planning
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Water Delivery Methods
		9.2.1 Continuous Delivery
		9.2.2 Delivery on Demand
		9.2.3 Concept of Rotation Delivery
	9.3 Water Delivery Parameters
		9.3.1 Water Allowance (WA) and Duty
		9.3.2 Stream Size
		9.3.3 Rotation Period
		9.3.4 Example: Water Allowance Computation
	9.4 Formulation of Time Schedule
		9.4.1 Unit Time and Basic Time
		9.4.2 Conveyance Loss and Loss/Gain in Irrigation Time
		9.4.3 Example: Computation of Outlet Capacity and Canal Capacity
		9.4.4 Example: Block (Group) Based Water Delivery in a Canal (Indonesia)
	9.5 Examples of Rotational Water Delivery in India
		9.5.1 Group Warabandi in Pochampad Project in Telangana
		9.5.2 Traditional Osrabandi in Upper Ganga Canal System
		9.5.3 Improved Warabandi in Upper Ganga Canal System
	9.6 Preconditions for Success of Rotational Water Delivery
	9.7 Field Irrigation at Night
		9.7.1 Visibility and Darkness
		9.7.2 Methods to Reduce Field Irrigation at Night
		9.7.3 Methods to Improve Irrigation at Night
		9.7.4 Need for Field Research on Night Irrigation
	9.8 Group System of Water Distribution to Reduce Peak Demand
	9.9 Irrigation Schedulling Based on Demand
	Appendix: Cropwat Software for Irrigation Schedulling
	Questions
	References
10 Measurement of Flow and Sediment in Canals
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Flow Measurements
		10.2.1 Parshall Flume
		10.2.2 Cut-Throat Flume
		10.2.3 Replogle Flume
		10.2.4 Thin Plate V-Notch
		10.2.5 Rectangular Weir
		10.2.6 Flow Measurement in Large Canals
	10.3 Water Level (Stage or Gauge Height) Measurement
		10.3.1 Gauging Site
		10.3.2 Measurement of Stage
	10.4 Methods of Discharge Measurement
	10.5 Measurement of Velocity
		10.5.1 Using Floats
		10.5.2 Using Current Meter
	10.6 Computation of Discharge
	10.7 Dilution Technique of Flow Measurement
	10.8 Stage-Discharge Relationship
	10.9 Measurement of Suspended Sediment and Bed Load
	Appendix: Sediment Transport Measurement
	Measurement of Suspended Sediment
		Sediment Discharge
	Estimating Bed Load
	Questions
	References
11 Performance Evaluation
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Objectives and Criteria of Performance Evaluation
		11.2.1 Distinction Between Objectives and Criteria
		11.2.2 Efficiency Criteria
		11.2.3 Economic/Financial Criteria
		11.2.4 Focus on Single Criterion
		11.2.5 Utility to Irrigators and Carrying Capacity
	11.3 Water Delivery Related Performance Parameters
		11.3.1 Adequacy
		11.3.2 Equity (Delivery of Fair Amount)
		11.3.3 Timeliness (Uniform Delivery Over Time)
		11.3.4 Reliability
		11.3.5 Dependability
		11.3.6 Sustainability
		11.3.7 Performance Standards
	11.4 Examples
		11.4.1 Field Irrigation Efficiencies
		11.4.2 Ponding Test to Find Seepage Loss
		11.4.3 Seepage Loss by Inflow-Outflow Method
		11.4.4 Check List of Conveyance Canal Above Outlet
	11.5 Case Study on Performance Evaluation of an Irrigation Project
		11.5.1 Adequacy
		11.5.2 Timeliness
		11.5.3 Ground Water Sustainability
		11.5.4 Irrigable Area Sustainability
		11.5.5 Cropping Intensity Performance
		11.5.6 Summary Results of Case Study
	Appendix: Performance Evaluation of Right Main Distributary of Upper Ganga Canal
		Right Main Distributary
		Canal Operation Plan
		Parameters of Irrigation Performance
		Concept of Potential Productivity
		Results of Analysis
		Recommendation
	Questions
	References
12 Use of Ground Water in Canal Command Area
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Conjunctive Use: Positive and Negative Factors
	12.3 Examples of Planned Conjunctive Use
		12.3.1 Augmentation Tube Wells Along Western Yamuna Canal
		12.3.2 Conjunctive Use with Saline Ground Water in Haryana State
	12.4 Estimation of Ground Water Resources for Conjunctive Use
	12.5 Limits on Ground Water Withdrawal
	12.6 Four Alternatives for Ground Water Use
	12.7 Issues Related to Conjunctive Use
	Appendix: Case Study of Khairana Tank Irrigation Project
		General
		Ground Water Related Characteristics of Khairana
		Ground Water Recharge
		Estimation of Canal Seepage and Canal Water Budget
	Water Withdrawal Using Shallow Wells
		Calculation of Head of Pumping
		Calculation of Pumping Unit
		Calculation of Number of Shallow Wells Required
		Water Withdrawal Using Tubewells
		Calculation of Pumping Rate
		Well Design
	Questions
	References
13 Maintenance of Irrigation Systems
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Operation and Maintenance Activities During the Operation Phase of a Project
	13.3 Steps in Formulation of Maintenance Plan
	13.4 General Priorities for Maintenance Repairs
	13.5 Essential Structural Maintenance Plan
		13.5.1 Physical Description of Irrigation System
		13.5.2 Proposed Flow Measurement Programme
		13.5.3 Proposed Programme for Evaluating Channel Losses
		13.5.4 Essential Structural Maintenance
		13.5.5 Cost of Essential Structural Maintenance
		13.5.6 ESM Implementation Plan
		13.5.7 Field Notes and Sketches
	13.6 Normal Maintenance Plan
		13.6.1 General Description of Irrigation System
		13.6.2 Available Maintenance Manpower
		13.6.3 Available Maintenance Equipment
		13.6.4 Present Maintenance Activities
		13.6.5 Major Maintenance Difficulties
	13.7 Catch-Up Maintenance Plan
		13.7.1 Physical Description of Irrigation Project
		13.7.2 Essential Structural Maintenance
		13.7.3 Status and Costs of ESM Plan
		13.7.4 Inventory of Required Maintenance
		13.7.5 Maintenance Costs
		13.7.6 Priority Maintenance Needs and Costs
		13.7.7 Maintenance Equipment Requirements
		13.7.8 Maintenance Manpower Requirements
		13.7.9 Maintenance Plan
		13.7.10 Field Notes and Sketches
	13.8 Preventive Maintenance Plan
		13.8.1 Physical Causes of Maintenance Problems
		13.8.2 Anticipated Extent of Maintenance Problems
		13.8.3 Maintenance Equipment Requirements
		13.8.4 Maintenance Manpower Requirements
		13.8.5 Maintenance Requirements for Water Users
		13.8.6 Estimated Annual Maintenance Costs
		13.8.7 Preventive Maintenance Plan
	13.9 Activities of Engineering Staff
		13.9.1 Maintenance Survey and Discharge Rating of Flow Control Structures
		13.9.2 Essential Structure Maintenance Plan
		13.9.3 Collect Water Measurement and Channel Loss Data
		13.9.4 Obtain Maintenance Information from Farmers
		13.9.5 Prepare Normal Maintenance Programme Report
		13.9.6 “Catch-Up” Maintenance Plan
		13.9.7 Annual Maintenance Work Plan
		13.9.8 Annual Maintenance Completion Report
	Appendix 13.1: Case Study on Maintenance Plan of Gohira Irrigation Scheme
	Questions
	References
14 Maintenance of Dams, Barrages, and Related Equipment
	14.1 Dams and Barrages
		14.1.1 Dam
		14.1.2 Weir, Barrage, and Head Works
		14.1.3 Example: Bhimgoda Barrage and Headworks of Upper Ganga Canal (UGC)
	14.2 Dam Inspection Before and During Rainy Season
		14.2.1 Example-Check List Items for Earth Dams
		14.2.2 Example-Check List Items for Masonry/Concrete Dams
		14.2.3 Example-Check List Items for Mechanical Equipment
		14.2.4 Example-Check List Items for Other Aspects
	14.3 Safety Measures
		14.3.1 Restriction on Public Entry and Security
		14.3.2 Safety of Operating Personnel
	14.4 Dam Maintenance Plan
		14.4.1 Catchment Protection to Check Soil Erosion
		14.4.2 Critical Maintenance of Dam
		14.4.3 Conditions-Based Maintenance of Dam
		14.4.4 Record Keeping for Dam Maintenance
	14.5 Example of Poor Maintenance of an Earth Dam
		14.5.1 Reservoir Bed Excavation for Construction Material
		14.5.2 Use of Land Along the Periphery and Bed of the Reservoir for Cultivation
		14.5.3 Heavy Seepage from Dam Foundation
		14.5.4 Jungle Clearance
		14.5.5 Top of Bund and Downstream Slope
		14.5.6 Upstream Slope and Pitching
		14.5.7 Toe Filter
	14.6 Guidelines for Maintenance of Bhoothathankettu Barrage
		14.6.1 Immediate Maintenance
		14.6.2 Condition-Based Maintenance
		14.6.3 Routine Maintenance
		14.6.4 Routine Maintenance of Barrage, Sluice Gates and Hoist
		14.6.5 Materials Requirement During Monsoon Period
		14.6.6 Instrumentation and Monitoring
	Questions
	References
15 Maintenance of Canals and Related Structures
	15.1 Canal Distribution System
	15.2 Checklist to Assess Extent of Repair and Maintenance
	15.3 Control of Aquatic and Vegetative Growth
	15.4 Erosion and Sedimentation Control
		15.4.1 Roadway and Berm Erosion
		15.4.2 Erosion from Cut-Banks
		15.4.3 Erosion by Animal Crossing
		15.4.4 Human Bathing and Washing
		15.4.5 Sodding
		15.4.6 Sediment Removal from Bed of Earthen Channels
		15.4.7 Silt Disposal
	15.5 Control of Seepage and Leakage from Embankments
		15.5.1 Compaction
		15.5.2 Service Roads
	15.6 Surface and Subsurface Drainage
		15.6.1 Surface Drainage on Roadway and Berm
		15.6.2 Subsurface Drainage in the Cut Area Reach of the Canal
		15.6.3 Filling Cavities Behind Lined Channels
	15.7 Emergency Measures for Earthen Embankments
		15.7.1 Seepage/Leakage
		15.7.2 Scouring
		15.7.3 Sliding
		15.7.4 Settlement of Embankment
		15.7.5 Breach of Embankment
	15.8 Maintenance of Canal Structures
		15.8.1 Under-Canal Structures (Drain Culverts)
		15.8.2 Bridges
		15.8.3 Drop Structures (Syphons)
		15.8.4 Fall Structures
		15.8.5 Culverts and Inverted Siphons
		15.8.6 Gate Structures
		15.8.7 Outlet Structures
	15.9 Maintenance of Minors and Water Courses by Water User Associations
		15.9.1 Maintenance Procedures by Farmers
		15.9.2 Emphasis on Technical Assistance
		15.9.3 Important Do’s and Don’ts for WUAs
	15.10 Inspection of Concrete/Masonry Construction
		15.10.1 Surface Deterioration
		15.10.2 Cracks
		15.10.3 Joints
		15.10.4 Seepage
	Appendix 15.A: Checklist for Condition of Minor
	Appendix 15.B Checklist for Canal Structures
	Questions
	References
16 Field Drainage
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Waterlogging and Salinisation Criteria
	16.3 A Case Study: Water Logging in Gidderbaha (Punjab)
		16.3.1 Waterlogging in Gidderbaha Tehsil
		16.3.2 Water Logging Condition in Sample Villages
		16.3.3 Causes of Water Logging in Sample Villages
	16.4 Components of Field Drainage
	16.5 Implementation of Field Drainage
		16.5.1 Unit for Design
		16.5.2 Collection of Data
		16.5.3 Reconnaissance Survey
		16.5.4 Prepare of L Section of Field Drains
		16.5.5 Preparation of Layout Plan
		16.5.6 Calculation of the Right of Way
		16.5.7 Execution of Field Drainage System
	16.6 Maintenance of Surface Drains
		16.6.1 Monitoring of Groundwater Levels
		16.6.2 Erosion and Sedimentation
		16.6.3 Aquatic and Vegetative Growth
		16.6.4 Hydraulic Performance
	16.7 Lining of Drains to Maintain Hydraulic Efficiency
	16.8 Example: Petlad Drainage Cooperative Society (Gujarat)
	16.9 Non-conventional Method of Drainage
	16.10 Vertical Drainage Using Tubewells
	16.11 Case Study of Augmenting Canal Water Through Battery of Tube Wells
	16.12 Use of Multiple Well-Point System
	16.13 Vertical Drainage Using Dug Well
	16.14 Biodrainage
		16.14.1 Concept of Biodrainage
		16.14.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodrainage
	Questions
	References
17 Diagnostic Analysis of Canal Irrigation System
	17.1 Concept and Knowledge Base of Diagnosis
		17.1.1 Concept
		17.1.2 Knowledge Base
	17.2 Objectives and Steps Involved in Diagnostic Analysis
		17.2.1 Objectives of Diagnostic Study
		17.2.2 Need for Identifying Right Parameters
		17.2.3 Six Steps
	17.3 Reconnaissance Survey Procedure
		17.3.1 Preliminary Objectives of Reconnaissance
		17.3.2 Allocation of Responsibility
		17.3.3 Information Collection
		17.3.4 Development of Work Plans and Methods
		17.3.5 Data Collection
		17.3.6 Analysis and Synthesis of Reconnaissance
		17.3.7 Report of Reconnaissance
	17.4 Detailed Study Procedure
		17.4.1 Five Steps
		17.4.2 Main Conveyance System Activities
		17.4.3 On Farm System
		17.4.4 Cropping System
		17.4.5 Socio-economic Aspects
		17.4.6 Interdisciplinary Analysis and Synthesis
		17.4.7 Report Writing
	17.5 Planning for Fieldwork
		17.5.1 Background Information
		17.5.2 Equipment/Facilities
		17.5.3 Some Important Do’s
		17.5.4 Some Important Dont’s
	17.6 Analysis Using Checklist of Performance
	17.7 Case Study of Cropping Subsystem and Economic Subsystem
	Appendix 17.A: A Case Study on Cropping and Economic Subsystems
		General
		Tank Irrigation Schemes
		Before Project, Designed, Existing, and Ultimate Situations
		Design Irrigation and Actual Canal Irrigation
		Cropping Pattern and Cropping Intensity
		Impact on Cropping System
		Changes in Cropping Intensity
	Unit Cost of Cultivation and Net Return for Crops
		Cost of Cultivation and Net Crop Return under Existing Situation
		Comparison with Designed Data
		Incremental Farm Income
	Questions
	References
18 Soil and Water Quality Management
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Definition of Quality Parameters
		18.2.1 Electrical Conductivity
		18.2.2 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
		18.2.3 Exchangeable Sodium Ratio or Percentage (ESR or ESP)
		18.2.4 Adjusted SAR
		18.2.5 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC)
	18.3 Measurement for Water Quality Evaluation
	18.4 Soil and Water Sampling
	18.5 Salinity Hazards
	18.6 Sodicity/Alkalinity Hazards
	18.7 Leaching for Salinity Control and Land Reclamation
		18.7.1 Water and Salt Balance in Soil Profile
		18.7.2 Leaching Requirements
		18.7.3 Example: Leaching Requirement Calculation
		18.7.4 Leaching for Reclamation
	18.8 Irrigation Timing, Frequency, and Method for Salinity Control
	18.9 Conjunctive Use for Salinity Management
		18.9.1 Two Important Methods
		18.9.2 Example: Blending Saline and Fresh Waters for Irrigation of Wheat
	18.10 Case Study on Soil Quality Testing
		18.10.1 Soil Sampling Locations
		18.10.2 Soil Sampling Method
		18.10.3 Soil Test Method
		18.10.4 Soil Quality Test Results
		18.10.5 Impact of Trace Elements on Agro-Eco System
	18.11 Case Study on Surface and Ground Water Quality Testing
		18.11.1 Methodology of Water Sampling and Testing
		18.11.2 Water Sampling Locations
		18.11.3 Surface Water Quality Test Results
		18.11.4 Ground Water Quality Test Results
		18.11.5 Conclusions
	Questions
	References
19 Soil Moisture and Its Measurement
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Basic Concepts and Terminology Related to Soil Moisture
		19.2.1 Soil Water
		19.2.2 Soil Water Content
		19.2.3 Saturation Capacity
		19.2.4 Field Capacity (FC)
		19.2.5 Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)
		19.2.6 Available Water (AW)
		19.2.7 Readily Available Water (RAW)
		19.2.8 Soil Water Potential
		19.2.9 Soil Porosity
	19.3 Soil Moisture Measurement Techniques
		19.3.1 Gravimetric/Oven Drying Method
		19.3.2 Tensiometers
		19.3.3 Time Domain Reflectometry
		19.3.4 Capacitance and Frequency Domain Reflectometry
		19.3.5 Gamma Ray Attenuation
		19.3.6 Gypsum Block Method
		19.3.7 Pressure Plate Method
		19.3.8 Feel and Appearance
	Questions
20 Rehabilitation and Modernization
	20.1 Defining Maintenance, Rehabilitation, and Modernization
	20.2 Need for Rehabilitation/Modernization
		20.2.1 Engineering Deficiencies
		20.2.2 Agronomy Related Deficiencies
	20.3 Components Requiring Improvements
		20.3.1 Canal Lining
		20.3.2 Conjunctive Use
		20.3.3 Modernization of Structures
		20.3.4 Remodeling and Construction of Additional Escapes
		20.3.5 Improvement of Drainage in the Command
		20.3.6 Improvement of Tele-Communication on Canal Systems
		20.3.7 Canal Service Roads
		20.3.8 Engineering Infrastructure
		20.3.9 On-Farm Development Works
		20.3.10 Training
		20.3.11 Culturable Command Area
		20.3.12 Crop Planning
		20.3.13 Economic Viability
		20.3.14 Staff
	20.4 Relative Importance of Measures During Rehabilitation and Modernization
		20.4.1 Conveyance and Distribution Network
		20.4.2 On-Farm Irrigation
		20.4.3 Drainage
		20.4.4 Operation and Management
		20.4.5 Agricultural Aspects
	20.5 Upper Ganga Canal Modernization Project
	Appendix: Modernization of Upper Ganga Canal Structures
	Introduction
	Headworks of UGC
	Old Upper Ganga Canal Structures
		Canal
		Silt Ejector at  2.2 km
		Inlets
		Ranipur Super Passage
		Pathri Super Passage
		Danauri Level Crossing
		Solani Aqueduct
	Modernization Project
	Modern Structures on PUGC
		Ranipur Syphon
		Ratmau Aqueduct at Dhanauri
	Questions
	References
21 Rehabilitation: A Case Study
	21.1 Salient Features of Tank Irrigation Projects
	21.2 Field Observations
		21.2.1 Common Observations
		21.2.2 Observations on Mahuakheda Project
		21.2.3 Observations on Khairana Project
		21.2.4 Observations on Maheri Project
		21.2.5 Observations on Hinauta Kharmau Project
	21.3 Operation and Maintenance Status
		21.3.1 Implementation Status
		21.3.2 Analysis of Time Overrun
		21.3.3 Main Reasons for Time Overrun
	21.4 Finance and Expenditure on Rehabilitation
		21.4.1 Analysis of Cost Overrun
	21.5 Recommendation to Overcome Cost and Time Overrun
	21.6 Improving Monitoring and Evaluation
	21.7 Recommendations for Improved Maintenance
	21.8 Success/Risk Factors and Learning Points
	Questions
	References
22 Conjunctive Use Management
	22.1 Issues in the Implementation of Conjunctive Use Management
	22.2 Irrigation Water Charges
		22.2.1 Surface Water and Ground Water Charges for Crops
		22.2.2 A Case Study on Water Rates
	22.3 Rationalization of Water Charges
		22.3.1 Principles to Be Followed
		22.3.2 Example: Rationalization of Water Charges in Lakhauti Branch Command
	22.4 Improvements in Organization Structure
		22.4.1 Deficiencies in Existing Organization
		22.4.2 Example: Model Organization Structure for Conjunctive Use Management
		22.4.3 Water User’s Association (WUA) for Conjunctive Use Management
	22.5 Surface Water Rights and Legal Issues
		22.5.1 Rights of People and Government
		22.5.2 Lacunae in Northern India Canal and Drainage Act
	22.6 Ground Water Rights
		22.6.1 Existing G/W Rights in Different States
		22.6.2 Lacunae in Ground Water Act
	22.7 Conflict Interfaces
	Questions
	References
23 Economics of Irrigation and Flood Control
	23.1 Economic Evaluation Criteria: Irrigation Water Charges
		23.1.1 International Bank Criteria
		23.1.2 Historical Changes in Evaluation Criteria in India
		23.1.3 Current Method of Economic Evaluation in India
	23.2 Limitations of the Current Method
	23.3 Information Required for Economic Analysis
	23.4 Net Value of Crops
	23.5 Composite and Ultimate Net Return
	23.6 Annual Net Returns over Different Years
	23.7 Estimation of Cost and Benefit/Cost Ratio
		23.7.1 Initial Cost Estimate
		23.7.2 Land Development Cost
		23.7.3 Annual Operation and Maintenance Costs
		23.7.4 Calculation of Benefit/Cost Ratio
	23.8 Economic Analysis of Groundwater Development
		23.8.1 Economic Cost of Ground Water Development
		23.8.2 Benefits of Ground-Water Development
	23.9 Economics of Water Losses, Groundwater, and Lining
		23.9.1 Canal Water Budget
		23.9.2 Irrigated Area Correction
		23.9.3 Benefit–Cost Evaluation
		23.9.4 Cost of Recovering Seepage Water
		23.9.5 Benefits from Recovery of Seepage Water
		23.9.6 Cost of Canal Lining
		23.9.7 Benefits of Canal Lining
	23.10 Economics of Sprinkler Irrigation
	23.11 Existing Benefit Cost Analysis of Flood Control Projects
	23.12 Improvement in Cost Estimation of Flood Control
	23.13 Improvement in Benefit Estimation of Flood Control
	23.14 Improvement in B.C. Analysis of Flood Control
	23.15 A Case Study of Mhaisal Lift Irrigation Scheme
		23.15.1 The Mhaisal Lift Irrigation Scheme (Mhaisal LIS)
		23.15.2 Assumption for Calculation of Benefit Cost Ratio
	23.16 All Costs are Converted to Year 2013–2014 by Compounding the Past Values and Discounting the Future Values
		23.16.1 Input–Output Values
		23.16.2 Gross Values of Farm Produce
		23.16.3 Annual Cost Calculations
		23.16.4 Estimation of Benefit Cost Ratio
	Questions
	References
24 Operation and Maintenance Budgeting and Financing
	24.1 General Aspects of Budgeting and Financing
	24.2 Guidelines for Preparation of Budget Proposal
	24.3 Financing of Operation and Maintenance Works
		24.3.1 Major and Medium Surface Irrigation Projects
		24.3.2 Minor Surface Irrigation Schemes
		24.3.3 Lift Irrigation Schemes
		24.3.4 Variation in Cost and Revenue
	24.4 State-Wise Water Charges (Rates)
	24.5 Conventional Versus Performance Budget
	24.6 Prescribed Norms for Maintenance Grant
	24.7 Examples
		24.7.1 Allotment, Expenditure, Revenue Over Ten Years Muzaffarnagar Division
		24.7.2 Percentage Breakdown of Annual Budget in Meerut Division
	Appendix: Questions
	References