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از ساعت 7 صبح تا 10 شب
ویرایش: 11
نویسندگان: Lisa A. Urry
سری:
ISBN (شابک) : 1488619875, 9781488619878
ناشر: Pearson Australia
سال نشر: 2018
تعداد صفحات: 1525
زبان: English
فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود)
حجم فایل: 455 مگابایت
در صورت تبدیل فایل کتاب Campbell Biology: Australian and New Zealand Version به فرمت های PDF، EPUB، AZW3، MOBI و یا DJVU می توانید به پشتیبان اطلاع دهید تا فایل مورد نظر را تبدیل نمایند.
توجه داشته باشید کتاب Campbell Biology: نسخه استرالیایی و نیوزیلند نسخه زبان اصلی می باشد و کتاب ترجمه شده به فارسی نمی باشد. وبسایت اینترنشنال لایبرری ارائه دهنده کتاب های زبان اصلی می باشد و هیچ گونه کتاب ترجمه شده یا نوشته شده به فارسی را ارائه نمی دهد.
بیولوژی کمپبل: کتاب الکترونیکی نسخه استرالیا و نیوزیلند.
Campbell Biology: Australian and New Zealand Edition eBook.
Front Cover Front Matter Full title Imprint Brief contents About the authors Preface Highlights of new content Ready-to-go teaching modules for instructors See the big picture Build visual skills Make connections visually Practise scientific skills Apply scientific skills to solving problems Bring biology to life Succeed with MasteringBiology Personalised coaching in MasteringBiology Instructor resources Featured figures Interviews Acknowledgments Reviewers Detailed contents 1 Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry Inquiring about life Concept 1.1 The study of life reveals unifying themes Theme: New properties emerge at successive levels of biological organisation Theme: Life’s processes involve the expression and transmission of genetic information Theme: Life requires the transfer and transformation of energy and matter Theme: From molecules to ecosystems, interactions are important in biological systems Concept 1.2 The core theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life Classifying the diversity of life Charles Darwin and the theory of natural selection The tree of life Concept 1.3 In studying nature, scientists make observations and form and test hypotheses Exploration and observation Forming and testing hypotheses The flexibility of the scientific process A case study in scientific inquiry: Investigating coat colouration in mouse populations Experimental variables and controls Theories in science Concept 1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints Building on the work of others Science, technology, and society The value of diverse viewpoints in science Unit 1 The chemistry of life An interview with Lovell Jones 2 The chemical context of life A chemical connection to biology Concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds Elements and compounds The elements of life Case study: Evolution of tolerance to toxic elements Concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms Subatomic particles Atomic number and atomic mass Isotopes The energy levels of electrons Electron distribution and chemical properties Electron orbitals Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms Covalent bonds Ionic bonds Weak chemical interactions Molecular shape and function Concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds 3 Water and life The molecule that supports all of life Concept 3.1 Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in hydrogen bonding Concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to earth’s suitability for life Cohesion of water molecules Moderation of temperature by water Ice floats on liquid water Water: The solvent of life Possible evolution of life on other planets Concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms Acids and bases The pH scale Buffers Acidification: A threat to our oceans 4 Carbon and the molecular diversity of life Carbon: The backbone of life Concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds Organic molecules and the origin of life on earth Concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms The formation of bonds with carbon Molecular diversity arising from variation in carbon skeletons Concept 4.3 A few chemical groups are key to molecular function The chemical groups most important in the processes of life ATP: An important source of energy for cellular processes The chemical elements of life: A review 5 The structure and function of large biological molecules The molecules of life Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers The synthesis and breakdown of polymers The diversity of polymers Concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material Sugars Polysaccharides Concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules Fats Phospholipids Steroids Concept 5.4 Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions Amino acid monomers Polypeptides (amino acid polymers) Protein structure and function Concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information The roles of nucleic acids The components of nucleic acids Nucleotide polymers The structures of DNA and RNA molecules Concept 5.6 Genomics and proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications DNA and proteins as tape measures of evolution Unit 2 The cell An interview with Elba Serrano 6 A tour of the cell The fundamental units of life Concept 6.1 Biologists use microscopes and biochemistry to study cells Microscopy Cell fractionation Concept 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalise their functions Comparing prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells A panoramic view of the eukaryotic cell Concept 6.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes The nucleus: Information central Ribosomes: Protein factories Concept 6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic funtions The endoplasmic reticulum: Biosynthetic factory The Golgi apparatus: Shipping and receiving centre Lysosomes: Digestive compartments Vacuoles: Diverse maintenance compartments The endomembrane system: A review Concept 6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another The evolutionary origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts Mitochondria: Chemical energy conversion Chloroplasts: Capture of light energy Peroxisomes: Oxidation Concept 6.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibres that organises structures and activities in the cell Roles of the cytoskeleton: Support and motility Components of the cytoskeleton Concept 6.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities Cell walls of plants The extracellular matrix of animal cells Cell junctions Concept 6.8 A cell is greater than the sum of its parts 7 Membrane structure and function Life at the edge Concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins The fluidity of membranes Evolution of differences in membrane lipid composition Membrane proteins and their functions The role of membrane carbohydrates in cell–cell recognition Synthesis and sidedness of membranes Cell membranes, electric fields, the platypus, echidna, and electric eel Concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability The permeability of the lipid bilayer Transport proteins Concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment Effects of osmosis on water balance Facilitated diffusion: Passive transport aided by proteins Concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients The need for energy in active transport How ion pumps maintain membrane potential Cotransport: Coupled transport by a membrane protein Concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis Exocytosis Endocytosis 8 An introduction to metabolism The energy of life Concept 8.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of thermodynamics Organisation of the chemistry of life into metabolic pathways Forms of energy The laws of energy transformation Concept 8.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontaneously Free-energy change, ˜G Free energy, stability, and equilibrium Free energy and metabolism Concept 8.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions The structure and hydrolysis of ATP How the hydrolysis of ATP performs work The regeneration of ATP Concept 8.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers The activation energy barrier How enzymes speed up reactions Substrate specificity of enzymes Catalysis in the enzyme’s active site Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity The evolution of enzymes Concept 8.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism Allosteric regulation of enzymes Localisation of enzymes within the cell 9 Cellular respiration and fermentation Life is work Concept 9.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidising organic fuels Catabolic pathways and production of ATP Redox reactions: Oxidation and reduction The stages of cellular respiration: A preview Concept 9.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidising glucose to pyruvate Concept 9.3 After pyruvate is oxidised, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA The citric acid cycle Concept 9.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis The pathway of electron transport Chemiosmosis: The energy-coupling mechanism An accounting of ATP production by cellular respiration Concept 9.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen Types of fermentation Comparing fermentation with anaerobic and aerobic respiration The evolutionary significance of glycolysis Concept 9.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways The versatility of catabolism Biosynthesis (anabolic pathways) Regulation of cellular respiration via feedback mechanisms 10 Photosynthesis The process that feeds the biosphere Concept 10.1 Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food Chloroplasts: The sites of photosynthesis in plants Tracking atoms through photosynthesis: Scientific inquiry The two stages of photosynthesis: A preview Concept 10.2 The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH The nature of sunlight Photosynthetic pigments: The light receptors Excitation of chlorophyll by light A photosystem: A reaction-centre complex associated with light-harvesting complexes Linear electron flow Cyclic electron flow A comparison of chemiosmosis in chloroplasts and mitochondria Concept 10.3 The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar Concept 10.4 Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates Photorespiration: An evolutionary relic? C4 plants CAM plants Concept 10.5 Life depends on photosynthesis The importance of photosynthesis: A review 11 Cell communication Cellular messaging Concept 11.1 External signals are converted to responses within the cell Evolution of cell signalling Local and long-distance signalling The three stages of cell signalling: A preview Concept 11.2 Reception: A signalling molecule binds to a receptor protein, causing it to change shape Receptors in the plasma membrane Intracellular receptors Concept 11.3 Transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target molecules in the cell Signal transduction pathways Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation Small molecules and ions as second messengers Concept 11.4 Response: Cell signalling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities Nuclear and cytoplasmic responses Regulation of the response Concept 11.5 Apoptosis integrates multiple cell-signalling pathways Apoptosis in the soil worm caenorhabditis elegans Apoptotic pathways and the signals that trigger them 12 The cell cycle The key roles of cell division Concept 12.1 Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells Cellular organisation of the genetic material Distribution of chromosomes during eukaryotic cell division Concept 12.2 The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle Phases of the cell cycle The mitotic spindle: A closer look Cytokinesis: A closer look Binary fission in bacteria The evolution of mitosis Concept 12.3 The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system The cell cycle control system Loss of cell cycle controls in cancer cells Unit 3 Genetics An interview with Shirley Tilghman 13 Meiosis and sexual life cycles Variations on a theme Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes Inheritance of genes Comparison of asexual and sexual reproduction Concept 13.2 Fertilisation and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles Sets of chromosomes in human cells Behaviour of chromosome sets in the human life cycle The variety of sexual life cycles Concept 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid The stages of meiosis Crossing over and synapsis during prophase I A comparison of mitosis and meiosis Concept 13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution Origins of genetic variation among offspring The evolutionary significance of genetic variation within populations 14 Mendel and the gene idea Drawing from the deck of genes Concept 14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance Mendel’s experimental, quantitative approach The law of segregation The law of independent assortment Concept 14.2 Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance The multiplication and addition rules applied to monohybrid crosses Solving complex genetics problems with the rules of probability Concept 14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics Extending Mendelian genetics for a single gene Extending Mendelian genetics for two or more genes Nature and nurture: The environmental impact on phenotype A Mendelian view of heredity and variation Concept 14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance Pedigree analysis Recessively inherited disorders Dominantly inherited disorders Multifactorial disorders Genetic testing and counselling 15 The chromosomal basis of inheritance Locating genes along chromosomes Concept 15.1 Morgan showed that Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behaviour of chromosomes: Scientific inquiry Morgan’s choice of experimental organism Correlating behaviour of a gene’s alleles with behaviour of a chromosome pair Concept 15.2 Sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance The chromosomal basis of sex Inheritance of X-linked genes X inactivation in female mammals Concept 15.3 Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located near each other on the same chromosome How linkage affects inheritance Genetic recombination and linkage Mapping the distance between genes using recombination data: Scientific inquiry Concept 15.4 Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders Abnormal chromosome number Alterations of chromosome structure Human disorders due to chromosomal alterations Concept 15.5 Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance Genomic imprinting Inheritance of organelle genes 16 The molecular basis of inheritance Life’s operating instructions Concept 16.1 DNA is the genetic material The search for the genetic material: Scientific inquiry Building a structural model of DNA: Scientific inquiry Concept 16.2 Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair The basic principle: Base pairing to a template strand DNA replication: A closer look Proofreading and repairing DNA Evolutionary significance of altered DNA nucleotides Replicating the ends of DNA molecules Concept 16.3 A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins 17 Gene expression: From gene to protein The flow of genetic information Concept 17.1 Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation Evidence from studying metabolic defects Basic principles of transcription and translation The genetic code Concept 17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA: A closer look Molecular components of transcription Synthesis of an RNA transcript Concept 17.3 Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription Alteration of mRNA ends Split genes and RNA splicing Concept 17.4 Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide: A closer look Molecular components of translation Building a polypeptide Completing and targeting the functional protein Making multiple polypeptides in bacteria and eukaryotes Concept 17.5 Mutations of one or a few nucleotides can affect protein structure and function Types of small-scale mutations New mutations and mutagens What is a gene? Revisiting the question 18 Regulation of gene expression Beauty in the eye of the beholder Concept 18.1 Bacteria often respond to environmental change by regulating transcription Operons: The basic concept Repressible and inducible operons: Two types of negative gene regulation Positive gene regulation Concept 18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at many stages Differential gene expression Regulation of chromatin structure Regulation of transcription initiation Mechanisms of post-transcriptional regulation Concept 18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression Effects on mRNAs by MicroRNAs and small interfering RNAs Chromatin remodelling and effects on transcription by ncRNAs The evolutionary significance of small ncRNAs Concept 18.4 A program of differential gene expression leads to the different cell types in a multicellular organism A genetic program for embryonic development Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals Sequential regulation of gene expression during cellular differentiation Pattern formation: Setting up the body plan Concept 18.5 Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control Types of genes associated with cancer Interference with normal cell-signalling pathways The multistep model of cancer development Inherited predisposition and environmental factors contributing to cancer The role of viruses in cancer 19 Viruses A borrowed life Concept 19.1 A virus consists of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat The discovery of viruses: Scientific inquiry Structure of viruses Concept 19.2 Viruses replicate only in host cells General features of viral replicative cycles Replicative cycles of phages Replicative cycles of animal viruses Evolution of viruses Concept 19.3 Viruses and prions are formidable pathogens in animals and plants Viral diseases in animals Emerging viruses Viral diseases in plants Prions: Proteins as infectious agents 20 DNA tools and biotechnology The DNA toolbox Concept 20.1 DNA sequencing and DNA cloning are valuable tools for genetic engineering and biological inquiry DNA sequencing Making multiple copies of a gene or other DNA segment Using restriction enzymes to make a recombinant DNA plasmid Amplifying DNA: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and its use in DNA cloning Expressing cloned eukaryotic genes Concept 20.2 Biologists use DNA technology to study gene expression and function Analysing gene expression Determining gene function Concept 20.3 Cloned organisms and stem cells are useful for basic research and other applications Cloning plants: Single-cell cultures Cloning animals: Nuclear transplantation Stem cells of animals Concept 20.4 The practical applications of DNA-based biotechnology affect our lives in many ways Medical applications Forensic evidence and genetic profiles Environmental cleanup Agricultural applications Safety and ethical questions raised by DNA technology 21 Genomes and their evolution Reading the leaves from the tree of life Concept 21.1 The human genome project fostered development of faster, less expensive sequencing techniques Concept 21.2 Scientists use bioinformatics to analyse genomes and their functions Centralised resources for analysing genome sequences Identifying protein-coding genes and understanding their functions Understanding genes and gene expression at the systems level Concept 21.3 Genomes vary in size, number of genes, and gene density Genome size Number of genes Gene density and noncoding DNA Concept 21.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have a lot of noncoding DNA and many multigene families Transposable elements and related sequences Other repetitive DNA, including simple sequence DNA Genes and multigene families Concept 21.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and mutation of DNA contribute to genome evolution Duplication of entire chromosome sets Alterations of chromosome structure Duplication and divergence of gene-sized regions of DNA Rearrangements of parts of genes: Exon duplication and exon shuffling How transposable elements contribute to genome evolution Concept 21.6 Comparing genome sequences provides clues to evolution and development Comparing genomes Widespread conservation of developmental genes among animals Unit 4 Mechanisms of evolution An interview with Jack Szostak 22 Descent with modification: A Darwinian view of life Endless forms most beautiful Concept 22.1 The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young earth inhabited by unchanging species Scala naturae and classification of species Ideas about change over time Lamarck’s hypothesis of evolution Concept 22.2 Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life Darwin’s research Ideas from the origin of species Key features of natural selection Concept 22.3 Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence Direct observations of evolutionary change Homology The fossil record Biogeography What is theoretical about Darwin’s view of life? 23 The evolution of populations The smallest unit of evolution Concept 23.1 Genetic variation makes evolution possible Genetic variation Case study: The Tasmanian devil Sources of genetic variation Concept 23.2 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test whether a population is evolving Gene pools and allele frequencies The Hardy-Weinberg equation Concept 23.3 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population Natural selection Genetic drift Case study: The little spotted kiwi Effects of genetic drift: A summary Gene flow Concept 23.4 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution Natural selection: A closer look The key role of natural selection in adaptive evolution Sexual selection Balancing selection Why natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms 24 The origin of species That “Mystery of Mysteries” Concept 24.1 The biological species concept emphasises reproductive isolation The biological species concept Other definitions of species Concept 24.2 Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation Allopatric (“Other Country”) speciation Sympatric (“Same Country”) speciation Allopatric and sympatric speciation: A review Concept 24.3 Hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation Patterns within hybrid zones Hybrid zones and environmental change Hybrid zones over Time Concept 24.4 Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can result from changes in few or many genes The time course of speciation Studying the genetics of speciation From speciation to macroevolution 25 The history of life on earth A surprise in the desert Concept 25.1 Conditions on early earth made the origin of life possible Synthesis of organic compounds on early earth Abiotic synthesis of macromolecules Protocells Self-replicating RNA Concept 25.2 The fossil record documents the history of life The fossil record How rocks and fossils are dated The origin of new groups of organisms Concept 25.3 Key events in life’s history include the origins of unicellular and multicellular organisms and the colonisation of land The first single-celled organisms The origin of multicellularity The colonisation of land Concept 25.4 Continental drift and isolation influenced speciations and extinctions that gave rise to Australia’s and New Zealand’s unique biotas Plate tectonics Australia’s changing climate Factors influencing the evolution of Australian fauna Evolution of New Zealand fauna Concept 25.5 Rates of extinction rose dramatically during five global mass extinction events Adaptive radiations Concept 25.6 Major changes in body form can result from changes in the sequences and regulation of developmental genes Effects of developmental genes The evolution of development Concept 25.7 Evolution is not goal oriented Evolutionary novelties Evolutionary trends Unit 5 The evolutionary history of biological diversity An interview with Nick Mortimer 26 Phylogeny and the tree of life Investigating the tree of life Concept 26.1 Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships Binomial nomenclature Hierarchical classification Linking classification and phylogeny What we can and cannot learn from phylogenetic trees Applying phylogenies Concept 26.2 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data Morphological and molecular homologies Sorting homology from analogy Evaluating molecular homologies Concept 26.3 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees Cladistics Phylogenetic trees with proportional branch lengths Maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood Phylogenetic trees as hypotheses Concept 26.4 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome Gene duplications and gene families Genome evolution Concept 26.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time Molecular clocks Applying a molecular clock: Dating the origin of HIV Concept 26.6 Our understanding of the tree of life continues to change based on new data From two kingdoms to three domains The important role of horizontal gene transfer 27 Bacteria and archaea Masters of adaptation Concept 27.1 Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success Cell-surface structures Motility Internal organisation and DNA Reproduction Concept 27.2 Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination promote genetic diversity in prokaryotes Rapid reproduction and mutation Genetic recombination Concept 27.3 Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes The role of oxygen in metabolism Nitrogen metabolism Metabolic cooperation Concept 27.4 Prokaryotes have radiated into a diverse set of lineages An overview of prokaryotic diversity Bacteria Archaea Concept 27.5 Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere Chemical recycling Ecological interactions Concept 27.6 Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful impacts on humans Mutualistic bacteria Pathogenic bacteria Prokaryotes in research and technology 28 Protists Living small Concept 28.1 Most eukaryotes are single-celled organisms Structural and functional diversity in protists Four supergroups of eukaryotes Endosymbiosis in eukaryotic evolution Concept 28.2 Excavates include protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagella Diplomonads and parabasalids Euglenozoans Concept 28.3 SAR is a highly diverse group of protists defined by DNA similarities Stramenopiles Alveolates Rhizarians Concept 28.4 Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of plants Red algae Green algae Concept 28.5 Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animals Amoebozoans Opisthokonts Concept 28.6 Protists play key roles in ecological communities Symbiotic protists Photosynthetic protists 29 Plant diversity I: How plants colonised land The greening of earth Concept 29.1 Plants evolved from green algae Morphological and molecular evidence Adaptations enabling the move to land Derived traits of plants The origin and diversification of plants Concept 29.2 Mosses and other nonvascular plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytes Bryophyte gametophytes Bryophyte sporophytes The ecological and economic importance of mosses Concept 29.3 Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tall Origins and traits of vascular plants Classification of seedless vascular plants The significance of seedless vascular plants 30 Plant diversity II: The evolution of seed plants Transforming the world Concept 30.1 Seeds and pollen grains are key adaptations for life on land Advantages of reduced gametophytes Heterospory: The rule among seed plants Ovules and production of eggs Pollen and production of sperm The evolutionary advantage of seeds Concept 30.2 Gymnosperms bear “naked” seeds, typically on cones The life cycle of a pine Early seed plants and the rise of gymnosperms Gymnosperm diversity Diversity of Australian and New Zealand conifers Concept 30.3 The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits Characteristics of angiosperms Angiosperm evolution Angiosperm diversity Concept 30.4 Australian and New Zealand plants represent a legacy of ancient Gondwana Unique adaptations of Australian and New Zealand flora Concept 30.5 Human welfare depends on seed plants Products from seed plants Threats to plant diversity 31 Fungi Hidden networks Concept 31.1 Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption Nutrition and ecology Body structure Specialised hyphae in mycorrhizal fungi Concept 31.2 Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction Concept 31.3 The ancestor of fungi was an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist The origin of fungi Basal fungal groups The move to land Concept 31.4 Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineages Chytrids Zygomycetes Glomeromycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Concept 31.5 Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfare Fungi as decomposers Fungi as mutualists Fungi as parasites Practical uses of fungi 32 An overview of animal diversity A kingdom of consumers Concept 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers Nutritional mode Cell structure and specialisation Reproduction and development Concept 32.2 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years Steps in the origin of multicellular animals Neoproterozoic era (1 billion–541 million years ago) Paleozoic era (541–252 million years ago) Mesozoic era (252–66 million years ago) Cainozoic era (66 million years ago to the present) Concept 32.3 Animals can be characterised by “body plans” Symmetry Tissues Body cavities Protostome and deuterostome development Concept 32.4 Views of animal phylogeny continue to be shaped by new molecular and morphological data The diversification of animals Future directions in animal systematics 33 An introduction to invertebrates A dragon without a backbone Concept 33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack tissues Concept 33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans Medusozoans Anthozoans Concept 33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of animal body forms Flatworms Rotifers and acanthocephalans Lophophorates: Ectoprocts and brachiopods Molluscs Annelids Concept 33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group Nematodes Arthropods Concept 33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes Echinoderms Chordates 34 The origin and evolution of vertebrates Half a billion years of backbones Concept 34.1 Chordates have a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord Derived characters of chordates Lancelets Tunicates Early chordate evolution Concept 34.2 Vertebrates are chordates that have a backbone Derived characters of vertebrates Hagfishes and lampreys Early vertebrate evolution Concept 34.3 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws Derived characters of gnathostomes Fossil gnathostomes Chondrichthyans (sharks, rays, and their relatives) Ray-finned fishes and lobe-fins Concept 34.4 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs Derived characters of tetrapods The origin of tetrapods Amphibians Concept 34.5 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg Derived characters of amniotes Early amniotes Reptiles Concept 34.6 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk Derived characters of mammals Early evolution of mammals Monotremes Marsupials Eutherians (placental mammals) Concept 34.7 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion Derived characters of humans The earliest hominins Australopiths Bipedalism Tool use Early homo Neanderthals Homo sapiens Unit 6 Plant form and function An interview with Philip N. Benfey 35 Vascular plant structure, growth, and development Are plants computers? Concept 35.1 Plants have a hierarchical organisation consisting of organs, tissues, and cells Basic vascular plant organs: Roots, stems, and leaves Dermal, vascular, and ground tissues Common types of plant cells Concept 35.2 Different meristems generate new cells for primary and secondary growth Concept 35.3 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots Primary growth of roots Primary growth of shoots Concept 35.4 Secondary growth increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants The vascular cambium and secondary vascular tissue The cork cambium and the production of periderm Evolution of secondary growth Concept 35.5 Growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation produce the plant body Model organisms: Revolutionising the study of plants Growth: Cell division and cell expansion Morphogenesis and pattern formation Gene expression and the control of cell differentiation Shifts in development: Phase changes Genetic control of flowering 36 Resource acquisition and transport in vascular plants Biological logistics: Moving resources to where and when they are needed Concept 36.1 Adaptations for acquiring resources were key steps in the evolution of vascular plants Shoot architecture and light capture Root architecture and acquisition of water and minerals Concept 36.2 Different mechanisms transport substances over short or long distances The apoplast and symplast: Transport continuums Short-distance transport of solutes across plasma membranes Short-distance transport of water across plasma membranes Long-distance transport: The role of bulk flow Concept 36.3 Transpiration drives the transport of water and minerals from roots to shoots via the xylem Absorption of water and minerals by root cells Transport of water and minerals into the xylem Bulk flow transport via the xylem Xylem sap ascent by bulk flow: A review Concept 36.4 The rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata Stomata: Major pathways for water loss Mechanisms of stomatal opening and closing Stimuli for stomatal opening and closing Effects of transpiration on wilting and leaf temperature Adaptations that reduce evaporative water loss Concept 36.5 Sugars are transported from sources to sinks via the phloem Movement from sugar sources to sugar sinks Bulk flow by positive pressure: The mechanism of translocation in angiosperms Concept 36.6 The symplast is highly dynamic Changes in plasmodesmatal number and pore size Phloem: An information superhighway Electrical signalling in the phloem 37 Soil and plant nutrition The corkscrew carnivore Concept 37.1 Soil contains a living, complex ecosystem Soil texture Topsoil composition Classification of Australian and New Zealand soils History, evolution, conservation, and sustainable agriculture in Australia and New Zealand Concept 37.2 Plant roots absorb essential elements from the soil Essential elements Symptoms of mineral deficiency Concept 37.3 Plant nutrition often involves relationships with other organisms Bacteria and plant nutrition Fungi and plant nutrition Epiphytes, parasitic plants, and carnivorous plants 38 Angiosperm reproduction and biotechnology Flowers of deceit Concept 38.1 Flowers, double fertilisation, and fruits are key features of the angiosperm life cycle Flower structure and function Methods of pollination The angiosperm life cycle: An overview Seed development and structure: A closer look Sporophyte development from seed to mature plant Fruit structure and function Concept 38.2 Flowering plants reproduce sexually, asexually, or both Mechanisms of asexual reproduction Advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction Mechanisms that prevent self-fertilisation Totipotency, vegetative reproduction, and tissue culture Concept 38.3 People modify crops by breeding and genetic engineering Plant breeding Plant biotechnology and genetic engineering The debate over plant biotechnology 39 Plant responses to internal and external signals Stimuli and a stationary life Concept 39.1 Signal transduction pathways link signal reception to response Reception Transduction Response Concept 39.2 Plant hormones help coordinate growth, development, and responses to stimuli A survey of plant hormones Concept 39.3 Responses to light are critical for plant success Blue-light photoreceptors Phytochrome photoreceptors Biological clocks and circadian rhythms The effect of light on the biological clock Photoperiodism and responses to seasons Concept 39.4 Plants respond to a wide variety of stimuli other than light Gravity Mechanical stimuli Environmental stresses Concept 39.5 Plants respond to attacks by pathogens and herbivores Defences against pathogens Defences against herbivores Unit 7 Animal form and function An interview with Adrian Dyer 40 Basic principles of animal form and function Diverse forms, common challenges Concept 40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organisation Evolution of animal size and shape Exchange with the environment Hierarchical organisation of body plans Coordination and control Concept 40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals Regulating and conforming Homeostasis Concept 40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behaviour Endothermy and ectothermy Variation in body temperature Balancing heat loss and gain Acclimatisation in thermoregulation Physiological thermostats and fever Concept 40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment Energy allocation and use Quantifying energy use Minimum metabolic rate and thermoregulation Influences on metabolic rate Torpor and energy conservation 41 Animal nutrition The need to feed Concept 41.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients Essential nutrients Dietary deficiencies Assessing nutritional needs Concept 41.2 Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination Digestive compartments Concept 41.3 Organs specialised for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system The oral cavity, pharynx, and oesophagus Digestion in the stomach Digestion in the small intestine Absorption in the small intestine Processing in the large intestine Concept 41.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet Dental adaptations Stomach and intestinal adaptations Mutualistic adaptations Concept 41.5 Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite Regulation of digestion Regulation of energy storage Regulation of appetite and consumption 42 Circulation and gas exchange Trading places Concept 42.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body Gastrovascular cavities Open and closed circulatory systems Organisation of vertebrate circulatory systems Concept 42.2 Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals Mammalian circulation The mammalian heart: A closer look Maintaining the heart’s rhythmic beat Concept 42.3 Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels Blood vessel structure and function Blood flow velocity Blood pressure Capillary function Fluid return by the lymphatic system Concept 42.4 Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defence Blood composition and function Cardiovascular disease Concept 42.5 Gas exchange occurs across specialised respiratory surfaces Partial pressure gradients in gas exchange Respiratory media Respiratory surfaces Gills in aquatic animals Tracheal systems in insects Lungs Concept 42.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs How an amphibian breathes How a bird breathes How a mammal breathes Control of breathing in humans Concept 42.7 Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases Coordination of circulation and gas exchange Respiratory pigments Respiratory adaptations of diving mammals 43 The immune system Recognition and response Concept 43.1 In innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens Innate immunity of invertebrates Innate immunity of vertebrates Evasion of innate immunity by pathogens Concept 43.2 In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition Antigen recognition by B cells and antibodies Antigen recognition by T cells B cell and T cell development Concept 43.3 Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells Helper T cells: Activating adaptive immunity B cells and antibodies: A response to extracellular pathogens Cytotoxic T cells: A response to infected host cells Summary of the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses Immunisation Active and passive immunity Antibodies as tools Immune rejection Concept 43.4 Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease Exaggerated, self-directed, and diminished immune responses Evolutionary adaptations of pathogens that underlie immune system avoidance Cancer and immunity 44 Osmoregulation and excretion A balancing act Concept 44.1 Osmoregulation balances the uptake and loss of water and solutes Osmosis and osmolarity Osmoregulatory challenges and mechanisms Energetics of osmoregulation Transport epithelia in osmoregulation Concept 44.2 An animal’s nitrogenous wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat Forms of nitrogenous waste The influence of evolution and environment on nitrogenous wastes Concept 44.3 Diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme Excretory processes Survey of excretory systems Concept 44.4 The nephron is organised for stepwise processing of blood filtrate From blood filtrate to urine: A closer look Solute gradients and water conservation Adaptations of the vertebrate kidney to diverse environments Concept 44.5 Hormonal circuits link kidney function, water balance, and blood pressure Homeostatic regulation of the kidney 45 Hormones and the endocrine system The body’s long-distance regulators Concept 45.1 Hormones and other signalling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways Intercellular communication Chemical classes of local regulators and hormones Cellular hormone response pathways Endocrine tissues and organs Concept 45.2 Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in hormone pathways Simple endocrine pathways Simple neuroendocrine pathways Feedback regulation Coordination of the endocrine and nervous systems Thyroid regulation: A hormone cascade pathway Hormonal regulation of growth Concept 45.3 Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development, and behaviour Parathyroid hormone and vitamin D: Control of blood calcium Adrenal hormones: Response to stress Sex hormones Hormones and biological rhythms Evolution of hormone function 46 Animal reproduction Let me count the ways Concept 46.1 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom Mechanisms of asexual reproduction Variation in patterns of sexual reproduction Reproductive cycles Sexual reproduction: An evolutionary enigma Concept 46.2 Fertilisation depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species Ensuring the survival of offspring Differences between monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals Gamete production and delivery Concept 46.3 Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes Human male reproductive anatomy Human female reproductive anatomy Gametogenesis Concept 46.4 The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates reproduction in mammals Hormonal control of the male reproductive system Hormonal control of female reproductive cycles Human sexual response Concept 46.5 In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully within the mother’s uterus Conception, embryonic development, and birth Maternal immune tolerance of the embryo and foetus Contraception and abortion Modern reproductive technologies 47 Animal development A body-building plan Concept 47.1 Fertilisation and cleavage initiate embryonic development Fertilisation Cleavage Concept 47.2 Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival Gastrulation Developmental adaptations of amniotes Organogenesis The cytoskeleton in morphogenesis Concept 47.3 Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals regulate cell fate Fate mapping Axis formation Restricting developmental potential Cell fate determination and pattern formation by inductive signals Cilia and cell fate 48 Neurons, synapses, and signalling Lines of communication Concept 48.1 Neuron structure and organisation reflect function in information transfer Neuron structure and function Introduction to information processing Concept 48.2 Ion pumps and ion channels establish the resting potential of a neuron Formation of the resting potential Modelling the resting potential Concept 48.3 Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons Hyperpolarisation and depolarisation Graded potentials and action potentials Generation of action potentials: A closer look Conduction of action potentials Concept 48.4 Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses Generation of postsynaptic potentials Summation of postsynaptic potentials Termination of neurotransmitter signalling Modulated signalling at synapses Neurotransmitters 49 Nervous systems Command and control centre Concept 49.1 Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells Glia Organisation of the vertebrate nervous system The peripheral nervous system Concept 49.2 The vertebrate brain is regionally specialised Arousal and sleep Biological clock regulation Emotions Functional imaging of the brain Concept 49.3 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions Information processing Language and speech Lateralisation of cortical function Frontal lobe function Evolution of cognition in vertebrates Concept 49.4 Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning Neuronal plasticity Memory and learning Long-term potentiation Concept 49.5 Many nervous system disorders can now be explained in molecular terms Schizophrenia Depression The brain’s reward system and drug addiction Alzheimer’s disease Parkinson’s disease Future directions 50 Sensory and motor mechanisms Sense and sensibility Concept 50.1 Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system Sensory reception and transduction Transmission Perception Amplification and adaptation Types of sensory receptors Concept 50.2 In hearing and equilibrium, mechanoreceptors detect moving fluid or settling particles Sensing of gravity and sound in invertebrates Hearing and equilibrium in mammals Hearing and equilibrium in other vertebrates Concept 50.3 The diverse visual receptors of animals depend on light-absorbing pigments Evolution of visual perception The vertebrate visual system Concept 50.4 The senses of taste and smell rely on similar sets of sensory receptors Taste in mammals Smell in humans Concept 50.5 The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle function Vertebrate skeletal muscle Other types of muscle Concept 50.6 Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion Types of skeletal systems Types of locomotion 51 Animal behaviour The how and why of animal activity Concept 51.1 Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviours Fixed action patterns Migration Behavioural rhythms Animal signals and communication Concept 51.2 Learning establishes specific links between experience and behaviour Experience and behaviour Learning Concept 51.3 Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behaviours Evolution of foraging behaviour Mating behaviour and mate choice Concept 51.4 Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the evolution of behaviour Genetic basis of behaviour Genetic variation and the evolution of behaviour Altruism Inclusive fitness Evolution and human culture Unit 8 Ecology An interview with Tracy Langkilde 52 An introduction to ecology and the biosphere Discovering ecology Concept 52.1 Earth’s climate varies by latitude and season and is changing rapidly Global climate patterns Regional and local effects on climate Microclimate Global climate change Concept 52.2 The distribution of terrestrial biomes is controlled by climate and disturbance Climate and terrestrial biomes General features of terrestrial biomes Disturbance and terrestrial biomes Concept 52.3 Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth Zonation in aquatic biomes Concept 52.4 Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species Dispersal and distribution Biotic factors Abiotic factors Concept 52.5 Ecological change and evolution affect one another over long and short periods of time 53 Population ecology Turtle tracks Concept 53.1 Biotic and abiotic factors affect population density, dispersion, and demographics Density and dispersion Demographics Concept 53.2 The exponential model describes population growth in an idealised, unlimited environment Changes in population size Exponential growth Concept 53.3 The logistic model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity The logistic growth model The logistic model and real populations Concept 53.4 Life history traits are products of natural selection Life histories and unpredictable environments Diversity of life histories “Trade-offs” and life histories Concept 53.5 Density-dependent factors regulate population growth Population change and population density Mechanisms of density-dependent population regulation Population dynamics Population cycles Concept 53.6 The human population is no longer growing exponentially but is still increasing rapidly The global human population Global carrying capacity 54 Community ecology Communities in motion Concept 54.1 Community interactions are classified by whether they help, harm, or have no effect on the species involved Competition Exploitation Positive interactions Concept 54.2 Diversity and trophic structure characterise biological communities Species diversity Diversity and community stability Trophic structure Species with a large impact Bottom-up and top-down controls Concept 54.3 Disturbance influences species diversity and composition Characterising disturbance Ecological succession Human disturbance Concept 54.4 Biogeographic factors affect community diversity Latitudinal gradients Area effects Island equilibrium model Concept 54.5 Pathogens alter community structure locally and globally Pathogens and community structure Community ecology and zoonotic diseases 55 Ecosystems and restoration ecology Transformed to lawns Concept 55.1 Physical laws govern energy flow and chemical cycling in ecosystems Conservation of energy Conservation of mass Energy, mass, and trophic levels Concept 55.2 Energy and other limiting factors control primary production in ecosystems Ecosystem energy budgets Primary production in aquatic ecosystems Primary production in terrestrial ecosystems Concept 55.3 Energy transfer between trophic levels is typically only 10% efficient Production efficiency Trophic efficiency and ecological pyramids Concept 55.4 Biological and geochemical processes cycle nutrients and water in ecosystems Decomposition and nutrient cycling rates Biogeochemical cycles Concept 55.5 Restoration ecologists return degraded ecosystems to a more natural state Ecosystems: A review 56 Conservation biology and global change Psychedelic treasure Concept 56.1 Human activities threaten earth’s biodiversity Three levels of biodiversity Biodiversity and human welfare Threats to biodiversity Concept 56.2 Population conservation focuses on population size, genetic diversity, and critical habitat Small-population approach Declining-population approach Concept 56.3 Landscape and regional conservation help sustain biodiversity Landscape structure and biodiversity Establishing protected areas Urban ecology Concept 56.4 Earth is changing rapidly as a result of human actions Nutrient enrichment Toxins in the environment Greenhouse gases and climate change Depletion of atmospheric ozone Concept 56.5 Sustainable development can improve human lives while conserving biodiversity Sustainable development The future of the biosphere Appendix A Answers Appendix B Periodic table of the elements Appendix C The metric system Appendix D A comparison of the light microscope and the electron microscope Appendix E Classification of life Appendix F Scientific skills review Credits Glossary Index